· The Mesopotamians being situated in between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers soon realized they could tap these rivers to build reservoirs and digging canals that could irrigate fields of barley wheat and peas.

· The rapidly increasing population created by the increased food supplies thanks to the newly discovered forms of irrigation attracted migrants from other regions. Human numbers grew especially fast in the southern part of Mesopotamia Sumer.

· Specialized labor brought about metallurgical innovations and around 4000 B.C.E. Mesopotamian metalworkers discovered that alloying copper and tin together would give them Bronze which was then used to create harder and stronger implements.

· After 1000 B.C.E. Mesopotamian Craftsmen began to incorporate iron into their production of tools and weapons along with Bronze.

· The development of the wheel in about 3500 B.C.E. and later wheeled carts in 3000 B.C.E. facilitated long distance in Mesopotamia.

· Watercraft had allowed the Sumerians to venture into the Persian Gulf by 3500 B.C.E. and by 2300 B.C.E. to trade regularly with Harappan Society in Northern India.

· Some Hebrews migrated from Palestine to Egypt during the 18th century B.C.E., however around 1300 B.C.E. this branch of Hebrews departed under the leadership of Moses and returned to Palestine where they were known as the Israelites dominating the territory between Syria and the Sinai peninsula.

· Like many other peoples the Israelites took advantage of iron technology to strengthen their military and agricultural implements.

· The Indo-European homeland was most likely somewhere in the steppe region of modern day Ukraine and Southern Russia although they migrated to all parts of Europe and even southwest asia.

· The Indo-Europeans were able to domesticate horses about 4000 B.C.E.

· The Hittites an Indo-European people were responsible for the creation of war chariots about 2000 B.C.E. and the refinement of Iron metallurgy after 1300 B.C.E.

Development and interaction of cultures: ANYADIKE, KIMBERLY

· In Mesopotamia>>

· Little rain leads to small scale irrigation by 6000 B.C.E. in Sumer; After First cities emerged in 4000 B.C.E. governments sponsored building projects and irrigation.

· Ziggurat- home of gods--polytheistic.

· Divine mandates to kings(priests)

· Hanging gardens of palace in the new Babylonian empire shows wealth and luxury

· Technological Development-Bronze (copper and tin) used in weapons and later agricultural tools

· Iron (1000 B.C.E.), cheaper and more widely available; used in weapons, tools

· Wheel (about 3500 B.C.E.) helps trade; carts can carry more goods further

· Shipbuilding: maritime trade increases in all directions; network develops

· Religious classes were rich

· Role: intervention w/ gods to ensure fertility and safety

· Patriarchy Hammurabi's code: men are head of the household

· The development of written cultural traditions

· Pictographs into > Cuneiform “wedge-shaped”, Mesopotamian writing style, becomes standard --Preservation of documents on clay

o >>used for trade, astronomy, math (agricultural applications), calculation of time

o (12 month year, 24-hour day, 60-min hour)

· Education: vocational to be scribe or government official

· Literature: Epic of Gilgamesh-- heroic saga, search for meaning, esp. afterlife, worldly emphasis

· Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews

· Early Hebrews are pastoral nomads between Mesopotamia and Egypt (second millennium B.C.E.)- Settle in some cities, Abraham leads group to Palestine 1850 B.C.E., descendents borrow law of retribution and flood story from Mesopotamia. Some migrate to Egypt in eighteenth century B.C.E. then back to Palestine with Moses. Twelve tribes become Israelites

· David (1000-970 B.C.E.) then Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.)

· Moses and monotheism

· Ten Commandments: moral and ethical standards for followers

· Compilation of teachings into Torah (1000-400 B.C.E.)

· Assyrians conquer Israel in north and Judah in south and destroy Jerusalem

· Deportees return to Judea; become known as Jews (586 B.C.E.)

· Prophets in this period increase devotion of people

· Build distinct Jewish community in Judea with strong group identity

· The Phoenicians have early alphabetical script (1500 B.C.E.) -simpler alternative to cuneiform>> spread of literacy

· Common roots of many languages of Europe, SW Asia, and India

· Caste system in India

State-building, expansion and conflict: ARATOW, ALEC

Political structures and forms of governance

· Sumerian city states

· Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, Kish, and others.

· Sumerian kings

· One king ruled each city.

· Many city-states became more powerful than others.

· Hammurabi’s Laws

· Hammurabi created laws that helped control his rule of Mesopotamia.

· Was one of the first law codes of Mesopotamia and helped rule the government for many years after Hammurabi died.

Empires

· The Babylon Empire

· Brought down by 1600B.C.E.

· The Assyrian Empire

· Brought down by 612 B.C.E.

· The Nebuchadnezzar and New Babylonian Empire

· Lasted from 600 to 550 B.C.E

· King Nebuchadnezzar ruled from 605-562 B.C.E.

Nations and Nationalism

· Assyrians

· Made people such as Israelites pay tribute to them.

· Conquered kingdoms easily and deported people to other regions.

· Exporting people caused many Israelites to lose their identities.

· New Babylonian Empire

· Toppled over the Assyrian empire and took over Judea. They also put people in exile so that their ideals of their origins would emerge.

Revolts and revolutions

· Astronomy and Mathematics

· Education led to an uncontrollable need to learn and math and astronomy were popular subjects.

· Helped create calendars and help predict agricultural production.

Regional, transregional, and global structures and organizations

· Temple Communities

· Organization that tried to make sure the gods were happy and gave good fortune to their communities.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: BAEK, JOHN

· Horses were used originally used for food and then domesticated.

· Artifical irrigation led to increased food supply. It supported an increasing human population. He attracted migrants from other regions.

· Semitic people were nomadic herders who went from Mesopotamia from the Arabian and Syrian deserts to the south and west.

· Bustling marketplaces drew buyers and sellers to their cities

· Labor projects were very common. They wre used to create palaces, temples and defensive walls dominated by the Sumerian cities.

· Example of a labor project was the gargantuan ziggurat at Uruk.

· Their network of Reserviors and canals was another example of labor systems at work in Southwest Asia.

· Pottery, textile manufacture, woodworking, leather production, brick making, stone cutting and masonry became few of the most common and distinct jobs in early cities in the world.

· The Sumerians traded items such as woolen textiles, leather goods, sesame oil and jewelry to India for copper, ivory, pearls and semiprecious stones.

· The Sumerians imported silver from Anatolia, cedar wood from Lebanon, copper from Arabia, gold from Egypt, tin from Persia, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and semi-precious stones from northern India.

· Assyrian merchants used donkey caravans to travel and sell things.

· Traded items was the basis of writing in the Assyrian empire.

· They used pictographs to portray animals, agricultural products and trade items like sheep, oxen, wheat, barley and fish.

· The Phoenicians traded overland with other peoples.

· The Phoenicians traded a large amount of cedar timber, furnishings and decorative items. These items were used in the Israelite’s temple in Jerusalem.

· Phoenicians imported food and raw materials for metal goods, textiles, pottery, glass and works of art.

· Phoenicians were known for their red and purple dyes.

· The Phoenicians made a large amount of commercial colonies in Rhodes, Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and North Africa.

· The Phoenicians searched for raw materials like copper and tin for bronze.

· The Phoenicians also searched for exotic items like ivory and semiprecious stones. It was fashioned into works of art.

· Cattle and sheep were used as a source of meat, milk and wool.

· The Hittites furthered their technology as they refined iron and used it for weapons and tools.

· The Hittite craftsmen found out that rather than pouring iron into a mold, it’d be better to heating iron and hammering it into the desired shape.

Development and transformation of social structures: BLANCO, OLIMPIA

· Gender roles and relations

· Emergence of a stratified patriarchal society.

· Men vested authority on public and private affairs.

· Hammurabi’s code through light on sex & gender relations in Mesopotamia.

· Women drowned for adultery but men could have sex with concubines sans punishment.

· Women also had a subordinate legal status but still made an impact on society.

· Women had roles as high priestesses they could also obtain careers as midwives, shopkeepers, bakers, etc.

· Men tightened control in the second millennium women began to wear veils by about 1500 B.C.E.

· Family and kinship

· Men were the heads of the household.

· They had the ability to sell wives or children into slavery to satisfy their debts.

· All major family decisions were in the power of men.

· Decided the work family members would perform and made marriage arrangements for their children.

· Racial and ethnic constructions

· Hebrews Jews and Israelites lead movements and migrations throughout Mesopotamia.

· The Phoenicians developed a writing system.

· There was the construction of monotheism which derived from early Hebrews

· There was the development of written cultural tradition and systems of writing such as cuneiform.

· Social and economic classes

· Cities: more opportunities to accumulate wealth

· The ruling class was the elites which included Kings (hereditary) and Nobles (family and supporters).

· The order went kings, nobles, priests/priestesses, free commoners, dependant clients, and slaves.

· Priests/priestesses lived in temple communities they had a large income through offerings and a big staff.

· Free commoners worked as peasant cultivators on land owned by their families.

· Dependent clients had fewer options than free commoners because they possessed no land; they usually worked as agricultural laborers.

· Slaves came from three sources prisoners of war, convicted criminals, or heavily indebted individuals some worked in agriculture but most were domestic servants.

· There was economic specialization and trade.

· One advancement was bronze and iron metallurgy.

· Bronze was made of copper and tin and was used for tools and weapons.

· Iron was cheaper and widely available came about 1000 B.C.E.

· The wheel came about 1500 B.C.E. helped trade because carts could carry more.

· Shipbuilding led to a sudden development of networks and increase in maritime trade.

Early Societies in South Asia-Chapter 4

Interaction between humans and the environment: BOHON, ASHLEY

· The Aryans were herding people who spoke an Indo-European language, and who migrated to south Asia in the 1500's B.C.E

· The Harappan Society was developed in the valley of the Indus river, where water was available for irrigation

· As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, agricultural surpluses, due to the access of the Nile, increased food supply, stimulated population growth, and supported new cities in the society.

· The Harappans deforested their land in order to cultivate fire wood, which caused ecological degradation.

· Aryans migrated throughout northern India, and had conflicts with the Dravidian people, thought they adapted their ways.

· The Aryans would settle down near the Indus River at Punjab, and migrated all over the east and south.

· From there, they settled in the area between the Himalayan foothills and the Ganges River.

· Their ways of settlement, had more hurting and depended more on the economy. They practiced little amount of agriculture, while the Harappans cultivated.

· The Aryans had little ways of technology, thought it was still effective.

· They herded horses, and harnessed them to carts or wagons to use for transportation of for war.

· During their migrations they learned how to make iron tools like axes and iron tipped plows that cleared forests.

· With this support the Aryans where able to migrate as far north to Deccan, to seek other fortunes awaiting.

Development and interaction of cultures: BOUDREAUX, TYLER

Has not turned in work yet

State-building, expansion and conflict: BRODEY, LILY

Political Structures & Forms of Governance:

· Harappan society- named after the Harappa, one of its two chief cities, developed in the valley of a river, the Indus, whose waters were available for irrigation of crops.

· Although, the Harappan society lacked the ability to decipher written records.

· No evidence survives concerning the Harappan political system.

· Their cities were economic and political centers for their own regions. Although, due to their large size Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were especially prominent on Harappan society even if they did not dominate the Indus valley politically or militarily.

· There was no evidence of a royal or imperial authority.

· The population of Mohenjo-daro was thirty-five to forty thousand, while Harappa was probably slightly smaller.

Empires:

· South and Southeast Asia are known for their long history of diverse cultures.

· The Mauryans formed the first extensive empire in the region in the 300s.

· After the 500s C.E., no single power could claim dominance over the region for 500 years.

· nations and nationalism:

· During the 1500s and 1600s the Europeans were able to take control of the international trade of Asia, thereby diverting the profits from this trade to Europe.

· As a result, the Europeans became stronger while Asian empires and kingdoms became weaker.

· By the 1800s the Europeans were in a position to establish their authority over much of Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia.

· Regional, trans regional and global structures and organizations.

· Indo-European migrations and early Aryan India.

· They had begun to file through the passes of the Hindu Kush mountains and establish small herding and agricultural communities throughout northern India.

· These migrations took place over several centuries.

· The caste system never functioned in an absolutely rigid or inflexible manner but, rather, operated so as to accommodate social change.

· Individual vaishyas or shurdras occasionally turned to new lines of work and proposed on the basis of their own initiative.

· Example: while individual Brahmins or kshatriyas sometimes fell on hard times, lost their positions of honor, and moved down in the social hierarchy.

· Social mobility came about as the result of group rather than individual efforts, as members of jati improved their condition collectively.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: CASTANEDA, YASMIN

· Trade with Mesopotamia.

· Trade with Silk Road.

· Both foreign and domestic trade, of pottery, tools, gold, silver and lead. Much more.

· Caste system was established. In the beginning, warriors were the highest.

· There was always a presence of a patriarchal society.

· They also had global trade

· Four main castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras.

· Harappan declined after 1900 B.C.E. Replacing them were the Aryans (1500 B.C.E.)

· Labor systems included goldsmiths,potters,weavers,masons,and architects.

Development and transformation of social structures: CHAIT, LILY

Origins of the Caste System:

· Aryans construct caste system dependent on hereditary distinctions, occupations, and roles in society

• Portuguese word casta: social class of hereditary and usually unchangeable status

• Caste identities develop at Aryans settle throughout India

• Aryans enter India with simple society of herders and cultivators led by warrior chiefs and priests

· Aryans create varna

• varna, a Sanskrit word meaning “color” to refer to major social classes

§ classes dependent on skin color

• Aryans = “wheat-colored”

• Dravidians = dark skinned

• four major varnas

§ brahmins = priests

§ kshatriyas = warriors and aristocrats

§ vaishyas = cultivators, artisans, and merchants

§ shudras = landless peasants and serfs

• untouchables = performed dirty and unpleasant tasks

• so polluted from their work that their touch could defile individuals of higher status

• Hymn of the Rig Veda, 1000 B.C.E.

§ four varnas created during the early days of the world

§ brahmins and kshatriyas = most honorable human groups to lead societies

• recognition of varnas in late Vedic age, more status and power of priestly/ aristocratic classes

· Sub-castes called jati develop as Vedic society become more complex

• people with same jobs, belong in same sub caste

• offspring join parents in both occupation and jati membership

• In 18th-19th centuries C.E. jati system featured several thousand jati

• jati members ate with one another, intermarried, cared for ill members or members had hard times

• rules of jati dictated forms of address and specific behavior appropriate for communication between members of different castes and sub-castes

§ violation of rules result in expulsion from larger group

· Possibility to improve individual or group status and change caste or sub-castes

· End of Vedic age, caste systems were central institutions in Aryan India

Development of Patriarchal Society:

· During migrations into India, men dominated Aryan society

• all priests, warriors, and tribal chiefs were men

• women influenced affairs in their own families but had no public authority

· Aryans established patriarchal social order to stand alongside the caste system and varna hierarchy

• Only males could...

§ inherit property (unless a family had no male heirs

§ preside over family rituals that honored departed ancestors

§ become formally educated in Sanskrit

• women rarely learned Vedas

· Lawbook of Manu by an anonymous sage, 1st century B.C.E.

• men should treat women with honor and respect

• women remain subjects of principle male in her life (fathers, then husbands, then their sons)

• most important female duties are to bear children and maintain wholesome homes

· Sati, the practice by which the widow voluntarily joins her death husband in death

• never a widely practiced custom in India

• moralists recommended sati for widows of socially prominent men

§ set example of women’s devotion to their husbands

§ reinforce value that Indian society places on the subordination of women

The Unification of China-Chapters 8 & 12

Interaction between humans and the environment: CHAMBERLAIN, HUNTLEY

Key Concepts:

· Large population enabled larger cities to form fast

· China first unified with Qin dynasty

· Technological innovations gave advantages in all fields

· Disease spread from Silk Road (smallpox most major)

· Massive Nomadic Migrations into China

Population

· China has huge population

o Before start of Qin dynasty population already at 20 million

· More people for agriculture and specialty of labor

o Earlier educational system, technological advances, dominance over smaller societies

· People live in small villages

o still, soon formation of massive cities, where citizens and colonists flock

Technology

· China far ahead of the world in certain technological fields

· Silk Textiles

o Chinese controlled secrets of Silk making for a long time, domination over Silk Road because of it.

Paper

· Higher level of Education

· Promoted Confucianism

Iron Metallurgy

· Higher quality tools (better agriculture)

· Better weapons (military dominance)

Disease

· Silk Road spreads many diseases from across the globe

o smallpox the worst

· China and Rome severely weakened by huge epidemics of smallpox

o led to collapse of Han dynasty

· Constant disease made mortality rate very high and average life very short

Migration

· Large amounts of migrations into China of nomadic peoples

· Especially prominent during Han collapse

o northern nomads migrated into China rapidly

o soon assimilated into Chinese culture and intermarried with the population

· Nomadic migrants establish kingdoms that dominate much of Northern China

Development and interaction of cultures: CHANG, SALLY

· Kong Fuzi

o Also called “Master Philosopher Kong”

o Born in Lu, in Southern China

o Served as an educator and political advisor

o Analects

· Kong Fuzi had numerous disciples whom compiled his teachings

· The ideas had a profound effect on Chinese political and cultural traditions

· Confucius

o Teachings were not abstract philosophy or even politics; nor did they deal with religion

· His personal philosophy of government was that positions should be filled with persons who were well educated but also conscientious and morally upright.

· Daoism

o “The Way”

o The philosophy originated with a sage known as Laozi

o Daoist thought developed in response to the Period of the Warring States simply stop striving, and live as simply as possible

o avoid advanced education

o The chief moral virtue was wuwei

o Ren

o Li

o Xiao

· Mencius

· Xunzi

· Buddhism and Hinduism

o Spread through cultural trade

o 200 BCE – 700 CE; dominant faith of silk roads

o Spread to China, Japan Korea

State-building, expansion and conflict: CHIN, AARON

Political structures and forms of governance

· Qin and Han Dynasties guided China.

· Daoism encouraged the cultivation of self-knowledge in a way to Confucianism and Daoism.

· Legalist doctrines emerged from the insights of men.

· In the period of Warring States, several regions adopted elements of the Legalist program.

· Qin declared himself first emperor and said his descendants would follow him.

· Decline of Manichaeism

· Han emperor soon became a puppet and regional lords controlled

· Barrack Emperors/Shang Yang/Han Feizi

Empires

· Zhou Dynasty

· Qin and Han Dynasty/Kingdom

· Shang Yang

Nations and nationalism

· Confucian influence

· The Doctrine of Wuwei

· Political Implications of Daoism

· Daodejing and Laozi

· The Legalist Doctrine

· The Reign of Wang Mang

· Hellenistic World

· Maritime Trade/ Monsoon Wind

Revolts and revolutions

· The Yellow Turban Uprising: tested the resilience of the Han state during the later second century. Filled with rage, it spread across China.

· Peasant uprising due to decay of Han Dynasty. As epidemic diseases ran through China, peasant discontent fueled a massive uprising. Although quickly stopped, the rebellion proved to be only the first in a series of insurrections that plagued through China.

Regional, transregional, and global structures and organizations

· Liu Bang

· Patriarchal Social Order

· Han expansion into Central Asia

· Social Tension

· Land Distribution due to peasant families debts

· Epidemic Diseases

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: CHO, DEBORAH

· Long distance trade was a risky venture before the classical times.

· Trade passing between societies was therefore liable to interception by bandits or pirates.

· Two developments reduced the risks associated with travel and stimulated long-distance trade.

· Rulers invested heavily in the construction of roads and bridges

· Classical societies built large imperial states that sometimes expanded to the point that they bordered on one another.

· The tempo of long-distance trade increased noticeably during the Hellenistic era, because of the many colonies est. by Alexander of Macedon and the Seleucid rulers in Persia and Bactria.

· Mariners from Ptolemaic Egypt learned about the monsoon winds that governed sailing and shipping in the Indian Ocean.

· A substantial trade developed throughout the Hellenistic world, from Bactria and India in the east to the Mediterranean basin in the west.

THE SILK ROADS

· The Han Empire maintained order in China and pacified much of central Asia, including a sizable corridor offering access to Bactria and western markets.

· Merchants and travelers created an extensive network of trade routes that linked much of Eurasia and North Africa as the classical empires expanded.

· Included a network of sea lanes that sustained maritime commerce throughout much of the eastern hemisphere.

· Silk and spices traveled west from producers in southeast Asia, China, and India to central Asia, Iran, Arabia, and the Roman empire.

· Silk came mostly from china, the only land in classical times where cultivators and weavers had developed techniques for producing high quality silk fabrics

· Ginger came from China Cinnamon from China and Southeast Asia, pepper from India, and sesame oil from India, Arabia, and southwest Asia.

· Central Asian and Mediterranean lands exchanged a variety of manufactured goods and other commodities for the silks and spices that they imported.

· Individual merchants handled long distance trade in stages.

· Long distance trade didn’t cause moral or economic problems for the roman empire or any other state in classical times.

· Long distance trade stimulated rather than threatened local economies.

Development and transformation of social structures: CHOI, DANIEL

Gender roles and relations:

· During the Han dynasty, moralists sought to enhance the authority of patriarchal family heads by emphasizing the importance of filial piety and women’s subordination to their menfolk.

· Women had more freedom.

· Education was more common for women.

· Ban Zhou – well educated woman from a prominent Han family who wrote a widely read treatise entitled Admonitions for Women that emphasized humility, obedience, subservience, and devotion to their husbands as the virtues most appropriate for women.

Family and kinship:

· The Confucian Classic of Filial Piety taught that children should obey and honor their parents.

· Patriarchal households averaged five inhabitants, although several generations of aristocratic families sometimes lived together in large compounds.

· To Confucian moralists and government authorities alike, orderly, patriarchal families were the foundations of a stable society.

Racial and ethnic constructions:

· Roads and trade had the effect of encouraging trade within individual societies and facilitating exchanges between different societies.

· Silk Roads brought different societies together.

Social and economic classes:

· Vast majority of Chinese population worked in the countryside cultivating grains and vegetables.

· China began to experience economic and social difficulties in the Former Han period.

· The establishment of agricultural colonies in central Asia was extremely expensive undertakings, and they rapidly consumed the empire’s surplus wealth.

· Distinctions between rich and poor hardened during the course of the Han dynasty.

· Wealthy wore clothes made with fine silk, leather shoes, jade and gold jewelries. Poor wore rough hemp clothing and sandals.

· Wealthy ate pork, fish, and wine. Poor ate mostly grain or rice supplemented by small quantities of vegetables or meat.

· Rebellions were formed by peasants in hopes of gaining a larger share of Han society’s resources by the first century B.C.E.

· The Yellow Turban Uprising – a serious revolt of peasants that raged throughout China and tested the resilience of the Han state during the late second century C.E.

600 BCE to 1450 CE

The Expansive Realm of Islam-Chapter 14

Interaction between humans and the environment: CHOI, JOSHUA

· Demography and Disease- Increased agricultural production contributed to the rapid growth of cities in all parts of the Islamic world from India to Spain. This also meant big populations and in this region, it was several hundred thousand people. There were no diseases.

· Migrations- There were no migrations.

· Patterns of Settlement- It was a great place for commerce, since it served as a vigorous economic stimulus for both the countryside and the cities of the early Islamic world.

· Technology- Paper was taken from the Chinese. It facilitated the keeping of administrative and commercial records and it made possible the dissemination of books and treatises in larger quantities than ever before.

Development and interaction of cultures: CHUN, STELLA

Religion: Islam

· Prophet Muhammad

o Prophet Muhammad believed that there was only one God, Allah, who ruled the entire universe. Muhammad claimed to have received visions delivered by archangel Gabriel. God sent messages through Gabriel to instruct Muhammad to explain the faith to other people.

o Muhammad and his followers were pressured by ruling elites of Mecca. Muhammad fled to north of Mecca into the city of Medina (“the city of the prophet”) where it became the new home of the Muslims. This fleet is also known as the hijra (“migration”).

o Muhammad is also known as the “seal of prophets”. This means that Muhammad is the last prophet that Allah revealed his message to humankind. He saw himself as the prophet Allah communicated his wishes and plans to.

· Quran & the Hadith

o Muhammad’s revelations from his visions were recorded by his followers during his oral recitations. Devout Muslims put together the teachings and created the Quran (“recitation”).

o The Quran is composed of poems that explain Muhammad’s understandings of Allah. It is the religious doctrine and social organization authority of Islam.

o The hadith is the next most important text after the Quran. The hadith serves as a guide for Muslim scholars to interpret the Quran. The hadith describes the social and legal customs, biographies of Muhammad, and commentaries on the Quran.

· The Umma

o Umma is a community of Muhammad’s followers. It is also known as the “community of the faithful”. This community is run under a system of comprehensive legal and social code. Muhammad led the community into daily prayers and battles with enemies. The economic welfare was also overlooked by Muhammad.

· The Pillars of Islam

o The Five Pillars of Islam is the foundation of the Islamic faith that was created by Muhammad.

o The Five Pillars are:

§ Muslims must acknowledge Allah as the only god and Muhammad as his prophet.

§ Muslims must pray to Allah everyday facing Mecca.

§ During the month of Ramadan, Muslims must observe a fast during the daylight hours.

§ Muslims must contribute alms for the relief of the weak and poor.

§ Those that are physically and financially able must undertake the hajj and make at least one pilgrimage journey to Mecca to honor Muhammad’s visits to Mecca.

· Jihad

o Jihad means struggle. This term represents an additional obligation for those who are faithful. There are many analysis of this term.

o One characteristic of the Jihad is that it imposes spiritual and moral obligations on Muslims by commanding Muslims to fight those who are evil. However, some interpret the Jihad as a struggle Muslims face against the ignorance and unbelief by spreading the Islamic faith and seeking converts. Another understanding is that the jihad is a physical struggle in which Muslims must take up their sword and wage war against unbelievers.

· Islamic Law: The Sharia

o Sharia is the Islamic holy law that was created by jurists and legal scholars. The sharia was inspired by the Quran and documents based upon Muhammad’s life and teachings.

o The Sharia served as a guide book on matters such as marriage and family life, inheritance slavery, business and commercial relationships, crime, and political authority in dar alIslam.

· Hajj

o The Hajj is a pilgrimage trip to Mecca. It was encouraged by Abbasid caliphs because they wanted to enhance a cultural unity in their realm. For the safety of the travelers, routes to Mecca were policed and shelter was provided among the roads.

o When devout Muslims arrived to Mecca, they would visit the holy sites and learn about the traditions of Islam. Through the Hajj, many Islamic beliefs and values were spread widely in the Islamic world.

State-building, expansion and conflict: CHUNG, ERIC

· After Muhammad’s death, caliphs served as Islamic leaders.

· Caliphs led the Muslims not as prophets, but as lieutenants or substitutes for Muhammad

· Islamic armies went on a mission to spread their faith and the rule of their caliph

· Although they weren’t powerful, Islamic warriors had the zeal of new converts, and they attacked when the larger empires(Sasanid and Byzantine) were weak from external and internal conflicts

· By the mid-eighth century, Islamic armies had conquered Byzantine Syria, Palestine, most of Mesopotamia, Byzantine Egypt, north Africa, Persia, the Hindu kingdom of Sind, and most of the Iberian peninsula.

· Biggest problem that emerged during the expansion was selection of caliphs

· After Muhammad’s death, Arab clan leaders had appointed first 4 caliphs, but political ambitions, personal differences, and clan loyalties complicated their decisions

· Disagreements over succession led to formation of Shia sect.

· The Shia sect’s mission was to return the caliphate to the line of Ali, the 4^th caliph who was assassinated by enemies

· The Shia adopted doctrines and rituals different from Sunnis (traditionalists), who accepted the legitimacy of the early caliphs.

· Establishment of Umayyad dynasty solved problem of succession temporarily

· Umayyads were ranked among the most prominent of the Meccan merchant clans and their reputation and network of alliances brought stability to Islamic community

· However, the Umayyad’s tightly centralized rule, favor they showed to fellow Arabs, and their luxurious living led to the decline of Umayyad dynasty

· Abbasid Dynasty took over after Umayyad’s collapse and they were far more cosmopolitan than the Umayyads

· Abbasid wasn’t a conquering dynasty; instead they focused on keeping a strong administrative system which relied heavily on Persian techniques.

· Soon after the high point of Abbasid, it quickly declined because of civil war, disputes over succession rights, and peasant rebellions.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: CHUNG, HAYOON

Agricultural and pastoral production:

· Effects of New Crops

· As the Islamic administrators/diplomats/merchants traveled throughout dar-al-Islam, they encountered plants, animals, and agriculture techniques. They helped spread these to the rest of their empire.

· India à Southwest Asia, Arabia, Egypt north Africa, Spain, Mediterranean islands of Cyprus Crete Sicily Sardinia.

· Spread staple crops à sugarcane rice, wheat, plants, fruits, industrial crops: Cotton Indigo and Henna.

· New Crops led to richer and more varied diet, producible in dry regions of the empire so overall, dramatically increased food supply. Allowed year round agriculture.

· Allowed growth of cities in the Islamic Empire. Such as Damscus, Delhi, Cairo.

· Agricultural Experimentation

· Travel and communication encouraged agricultural techniques

· Paid attention to irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, made into manuscript.

Trade and Commerce

· (Islamic society a highly trade commerce. Reason: Muhammed, the leader was a merchant therefore encouraged lots of trade. Honest merchants = Martyrs in their Muslim faith)

· After over-running the Sasanid empire, Muslim conquerors controlled many trading cities. Then, they used a revived Silk Road to form trade from China(east)à Mediterranean(west)

· These roads were originally built during the classical eras of India, Persia, Mediterranean

· Roads excellent for travel by Merchants, very speedy and efficient.

· Camels and Caravans

· Overland trade mostly traveled by Camel caravans.

· Reason: although cranky animals, endures rigors of desert travel, fits well with a saddle, carries heavy loads.

· As camel caravans became popular in Islamic world, built caravanserais, inns offering lodging for caravan merchants, food/water/care for animal

· Maritime Trade

· Lots of technology and innovations allowed lots of sea trade à Red Sea, Persian gulf, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean.

· Compass à Chinese inventors

· Lateen Sail(triangular; increase maneuverability) à Southeast Asian, Indian Mariners

· Astrolabe(calculates latitude) à Hellenistic Mediterranean

· Banks

· Stimulated commercial economy of Islamic World.

· Used since classical Mediterranean society but increase in trade àenables refinement of organization

· Lent money to entrepreneurs, served as brokers for investments.

· Sakkà credit ‘check’ drawn from parent bank. Used by Merchants

· Organization of Trade

· Did lots of group investments on large scale trades.

· Why?

· Funding a caravan individually = expensive

· If a caravan fails(by pirates etc), one person will face financial ruin.

· So, by group funding, they:

· Distributed risk so impact less if fails. Each fail is small impact

· Can make bigger, more profitable trade.

· Long Distance Trade

· Muslim merchants traded and got:

· Silk Ceramics from china, species and spices from India, jewelry/textiles from Byzantine empire.

· Went past China India and Mediterranean basin by trading with Saharan Africa, Russia, Scandinavia

· Al-Andalus – islam spain

· Expresses effects of long distance trade.

· Imported crops à increased food supply, enriched diet. à enabled growth of great cities and business à lighted roads, free Islam schools, bigbigbig mosque/library

Labor Systems

· Different working people:

· War fighting people:

· Anyone who wanted to take up their faith and fight for their faith. Physical struggled from Jihad.

· Trading people

· Merchants who traveled from East to West, vice versa. Very esteemed

· Rich, authoritative, clean job people

· Caliphs, (deputy) substitutes of Muhammed but no prophet because muhammed last.

· Administrating people

· Used Persian way of statecraft and administered dar-al-Islam.

· Ulama à people with religious knowledge, scholars, develop laws based on faith

· Qadis à judges

· Some slaves from Sahara, trade.

· POWS, for example the POWS of China who had to work in Paper manufacture.

Industrialization

· Industrial production made in bustling cities

· Textiles, pottery, leather, iron, steel

· Paper manufacture, used Chinese POW and forced them into the labor

· Camel Saddle Manufacture

· Industiral crop: Cotton à Basis for a thriving textile industry throughout much of the Islamic World.

Socialism and Capitalism

· Dar-al-islam was very religion and trade driven. The government didn’t try to control all money but made sure that the economy was going well and also made sure the conquered lands were administered correctly. Howevever, they lacked cooperativity as a whole. That was why the empire was not administered well, resulting in the fall of the empire. Trade and religion was not enough to keep the huge empire together. There was a lot of Capitalism. Individuals or groups traded for profit.

Development and transformation of social structures: COOK, MOHAMMED

No completed work

India and the Indian Ocean Basin –Chapter 16

Interaction between humans and the environment: DE SANTIAGO, AMBAR

Demography and Disease:

· Islamic and Hindu Kingdoms inhabited most of India and above India.

· Nomadic groups were moving into India.

· Through increased productivity India population steadily grew. Fall of the Gupta –53 million people. By 800 64 million. By 1000 79 million. By 1500 105 million.

Migrations:

· The migrations and invasions of Turkish-speaking peoples from central Asia.

· Muslim Turks entered the Abbasid realm and migrated into Byzantine Anatolia.

· Muslim and Turkish peoples who migrated to India were integrated into Indian society. They pursued opportunities and were taken under the umbrella of the caste system.

· The spread of Islam and Hinduism and other religions spread to the southeast Asian islands such as Funan, Srivijaya, Angkor, and Melaka.

Patterns of Settlement:

· Arrival of Islam in India by the military and through merchants.

· Due to India’s location in the Indian Ocean Basin they received lots of merchants going in and out of the port cities. Many of them even settled down and making the port city wealthy.

· Southeast Asian cities that became prominent places for trade and wealth. Constant visits to these Asian communities and influence.

Technology:

· Dhows and Junks. Larger ships that enabled them to leave the coasts behind and plu the blue waters of Indian Ocean. Dhows were used by Indian, Persian, and Arab sailors that could carry tons of weight. Chinese used southeast Asian junks to sail the seas.

Development and interaction of cultures: DIDELOT-HERN, MARGUERIT

Technology and Science

· Irrigation and monsoon winds

· Built more dams, reservoirs, canals, and wells

· Larger Ships, more transportation means more trade

· Dhows: Indian, Persian and Arab sailors

· Junks: Chinese, Southeast Asian

· Emporiums

· Exchange cargo

· Specialized Trade

· Manufacturing for more trade

Art and Architecture

· Angkor – later abandoned

· Indian tradition in South East Asia

· Reflection of Hindu World

· Buddhist temple in 12^th and 13^th century

· Inspired my Hinduism

Philosophies and Ideologies

· Hinduism influence philosophy

· Brahmins philosophers: Shankara and Ramanuja

· Upanishads: subtle reasoning and sophisticated metaphysics

· Shankara: physical world was an illusion, reality lay behind the physical sense.

· Ramanja: intellectual understanding of reality was more important than personal unity with a deity

· Bhagavad-Gita

Belief Systems

· Buddhism

· 1^st millennium: east, central and southeast Asia

· Promised salvation to devout individuals

· Gradually taken over by Hinduism

· Hinduism (Belief System and Religion)

· Devotional cults: Vishnu and Shiva

· Vishnu: preserver of the world

· Shiva: Destruction and Fertility

· Union with god, means salvation

Religion

· Islam: gradual acceptance with merchants

· Equality for all believers

· Sufis: personal, emotional, devotional

· Attracted people looking for comfort and meaning to their lives

· Bhakti movement: cult that tried to erase distinction between Islam and Hinduism.

State-building, expansion and conflict: DORFMAN, EDWARD

Political structures and forms of governance

· The Indian Ocean Basin society was formed through a caste system in which the people located at the top of the caste would be the favorable for governance. The political structure of the southern society in the Indian Ocean basin was very peacefully set. The Chola kingdom would be ruled near the coast in a very tightly centralized state. They would rule their government through a king and many different kingdoms where people would then ruled under a very centralized state. The castes helped to integrate immigrants, build guilds (jati), and expand the southern state.

Empires

· The Indian Ocean basin society was structured through kingdoms in different regions throughout India. One of these kingdoms was the Chola kingdom in Southeast Asia. At the kingdom’s high point, they were able to conquer many different parts of Southeast Asia thus expanding their territory. While the navy dominated the seas, the local autonomy was very strong in the sense that they were able to control the people very well. The Chola kingdom later on influenced many different kingdoms such as Funan, Srivijaya, Angkor, Singosari, and Majapahit. Another empire was the Vijayanagar was responsible for the conversion of the state into Islam. This state influenced modern India very vastly.

Nations and Nationalism

· The nationalism in India was that they wanted the nation to be as one and with different states or provinces under the same regulations and same religion as well. The nation of India was together mixed between Muslims and Hindi and working as one. The country had different religions but tried to be as one country and not to be separated other than under a religion.

Revolts and Revolutions

· There were no revolutions in the Indian Ocean basin because the king didn’t oppress the people very much but some revolts or arguments occurred due to a disagreement but nothing major happened; everything in the society was at equilibrium.

Regional, Transregional, and Global Structures and Organizations

· The society was located in India, mainly next to the Indian Ocean (Southeast Asia). The organizations of the Indian Ocean basin were that of a society that involved kingdoms and a very centralized government. A global structure of the Indian Ocean basin was that they worked as one state in a huge country and together they developed on it and traded in order to support themselves. There were two main religions in the country and through that they developed as a group.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: DREAR, DAVIS

Agricultural and Pastoral Production

· Use of the Monsoon System

· Irrigation systems

· Irrigation was essential to maintain a large, densely populated, agricultural society

· Northern India used the Indus River

· Eastern India used the Ganges River

· Waterworks e.g. dams, reservoirs, canals, wells, and tunnels were built

Trade and Commerce

· Internal Trade between Southern and Northern Kingdoms

· Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin

· Dhows and Junks used for trade

· Port cities in India did very well e.g. Quillon and Calicut

· Indian spices were very sought after products

Labor Systems

· Specialized Production

· Manufactured goods

· Cotton Textiles

Industrialization

· Manufacturing

Capitalism and Socialism

· Capitalism

Development and transformation of social structures: DUNLEVY, KAITLIN

· The caste system originated in northern India when the Aryan started to migrate while the caste system was introduced to southern India during the postclassical era.

· The people of India lived by the caste system but the caste system became more complex after the changes of the postclassical era.

· Since there was an absence of a powerful central government the caste system was a way tom maintain order in all the local communities in India.

· The caste system had easy mobility in society for all different castes.

· The caste system provided guidance on individual roles and social relationships in the smaller communities.

· As the population started to grow so did the trade specialization. Different goods were only made in different areas which increased the internal trade between different guilds.

· The castes were split into separate sub castes, or jati, that determined the relationships between different people and also these sub castes sometimes turned into guilds.

· The guilds would gain great political power as they gained economic power in their society in India.

· When the caste system was set up in southern India it also set up a trading system between the north and the south.

· As migrants such as the Turkish people and the Muslim merchants came into India they integrated into Indian society after a few generations.

· The migrants would establish codes of conduct for their behavior with members with other castes and people within their own jati.

· Brahmins were in charge of the temples and they would keep track of the caste system and all of the sub castes. The temple was the only place where someone could get a formal education at the time.

· Hindu temples served as the social and economic centers for the merchants and artisans from all over India.

· The main jobs that the common people had were the merchants and artisans. Merchants sold a particular type of commerce while an artisan did work with metals or leather.

· There was great caste expansion in southern India.

· In Funan, located in modern Thailand and Cambodia, they adopted the Sanskrit term raja for king to claim divine sanction for their rule as the Hindu rulers of India did.

States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa-Chapter 19

Interaction between humans and the environment: EGGERT, MAGDALENA

· Agricultural Bantu peoples migrated throughout southern Africa in the first centuries CE, displacing hunter-gatherer societies

· most migrations were finished by about 1000

· iron metallurgy enabled Bantu to make agricultural tools

· bananas introduced by 500; helped promote population growth

· other common crops were yams, sorghum, and millet; cattle raising adopted by the Khoi people

· camels make trade easier, introduced around 7th century BCE

· Bantu peoples introduce their technologies, agriculture, etc. to east Africa by 2nd century, eventually founding Swahili society

· another important area of development was the Congo River basin, where the kingdom of Kongo emerged

· west Africa center of gold production; largest supply of gold available at the time

· other important trading resources included ivory and salt

· Africans recognized lesser gods and spirits associated with natural features such as the sun, rain, rivers, trees, wind; these gods could bring benefits or injury to humans

· rituals to honor the gods included animal sacrifice

· Ethiopian Christians carved churches from rock during the 12th century

Development and interaction of cultures: ELLERN, AARON

No completed Work

State-building, expansion and conflict: GALICIA, JESSICA

· By 1000CE, Bantu nearly reach limit of their expansion and instead of traveling to new lands they develop complex government forms.

o Stateless society or segmentary society

· Stateless society or segmentary society were terms used to describe the family and kinship group governance of the Bantu, which relied on no elaborate hierarchy or bureaucratic apparatus.

o Male heads of families in each village constituted a council which dealt with affairs of the village.

o There was no higher rule than the chiefs of each village. Sometimes the councils from two different villages would negotiate matters with one another.

· As small scale governance led to tension between villages the most powerful chiefs from certain villages would impose their authority over nearby villages creating small chiefdoms over districts.

· Eventually, in the more active and politically developing parts of Africa (i.e., Congo River basin), small districts were encouraged to form states embracing a couple villages each. One example is the Kingdom of Kongo.

· Yet kin-based rule remained long after states emerged.

· As there was more and more large-scale governance, empires begin emerging that are extremely wealthy.

o Kingdom of Ghana- between the Senegal and Niger river regions. Legend tells as many as 22 kings ruled it before Muhammad went on the hijra.

o Mali Empire- embraced Ghana and a few other kingdoms in Senegal and Niger river areas. Notable rulers: Sundaita the lion prince(r. 1230-1255) and his grand-nephew Mansa Musa. Capital city: Niani.

· 11th-12th centuries: Swahili city-state rule begins to emerge as chiefs begin spreading their authority and gaining wealth from trading.

· As trade grew so did the number of slaves within Africa. Due to the horrible working conditions on plantations, these slaves often mounted revolts which were also often stopped by Muslim authorities.

· Zanj- refers to black slaves from the Swahili coast.

o In the Zanj revolt, around 869, rebel slave Ali bin Muhammad united a 15 thousand Zanj slaves in a revolt that captured Basra, important Mesopotamian city, since they were busy with other threats the Abbasid rulers don’t deal with the revolt until 10 years later in 879. They have the rebellion crushed by 883 and leaders of the revolt are executed.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: GAMBOA, DANIEL

Agricultural and pastoral production

· Agricultural societies, cultivators, and herders displaced those who hunted and gathered and eventually absorbed them into their society.

· Iron metallurgy aided in the creation of tools that helped in agriculture.

· Yams, sorghum, and millet were dietary staples

· Increase in agricultural production, rising population, and pressure for continuing migration.

· Bananas increased the supply of food available to the Bantu causing them to expand even more rapidly

· Bantu helped introduce agriculture, cattle herding, and iron metallurgy to the region of east Africa.

Trade and commerce

· From the classical era forward, East Asia to the Mediterranean basin established extensive networks of trade and communication.

· Supported the emergence of kingdoms.

· Trade networks involved copper, raffia cloth, and nzimbu shells from the Atlantic Ocean.

· Currency based on cowries (shells)

· Introduction of the camel quickened the pace of communication and transportation.

· Trading center: Gao

· Markets had: ironware, cotton textiles, salt, grains, and carnelian beads.

· Ghana became the center for trade in gold which was in high demands because of economic development and surging trade throughout the eastern hemisphere

· Koumbi-Saleh was the capital of Ghana and principal trading site

· Swahili were those who engaged in trade along the east African coast who were in possession of gold, slaves, ivory, and exotic local products such as tortoise shells and leopard skins

Labor systems

· Portuguese slave traders undermined kings

· Swahili obtained slaves from interior regions of east Africa

· Slaves were captives of war, debted, witches, or criminals.

· Slaves most of the time worked as agricultural laborers but also as construction laborers, miners, or porters.

· Slavery prominent as well as slave raids.

· Larger kingdoms attacked smaller states for slaves.

· The Zanj Revolt

Industrialization

· Iron Metallurgy

· Ware-houses

· Camels

Capitalism and socialism

· Mali – more capitalist because it controlled and taxed almost all trade that passed

· Ghana – more socialist

· Zimbabwe – more capitalist since they controlled and taxed the trade between the interior and coastal regions which enabled them to for alliances with local leaders and profit from commercial transactions.

· Kongo, Mali, and Kilwa developed complex societies with clearly defined classes

· Kin-based societies in smaller states of sub-Saharan Africa

Development and transformation of social structures: GARCIA, SHAYNA

Gender roles and relations:

· Work that required special skills were often performed by men, they then passed their knowledge onto their heirs.

· In blacksmith families women were often potters.

· Men and women participated in planting and harvesting crops.

· Women often took on domestic work and were the primary responsibility for child bearing.

· Women had opportunities to hold aristocratic positions and influenced public affairs.

· Participated in all women combat military units.

Family & Kinship:

· The Bantu people did not rely on hierarchy, administrators, or a bureaucracy. They governed themselves through family and kinship groups.

· The head of the family (male) served in the villages ruling council.

· Kin-based societies struggled after 100 C.E. due to population growth, migrants and conflicts between villages.

Racial and ethnic constructions:

· Khoi

· Bantu

· Tiv

· Swahili (“coasters”)

Social and economic classes:

· KINGDOMS, EMPIRES, CITY STATES (Kongo, Mali, Kilwa):

· Ruling elites, military nobles, administrative officials, religious authorities, wealthy merchants, artisans, business entrepreneurs, common people, peasants, slaves.

· SMALL STATES & KIN-BASED SOCIETIES:

· Aristocratic (ruling elite), religious authorities.

EMPIRES:

· Age grades

Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania-Chapter 21

Interaction between humans and the environment: GOLDHAMER, DANIEL

· Regional societies surrounding modern-day Mexico city after the fall of Teotihuacan

· Fought amongst themselves

· Toltecs unified Mexico after migrating about the eighth century C.E.

· Came from the arid climate of NW Mexico

· Settled at Tula

· Toltecs irrigated the rivers of Mexico and farmed maize, beans, peppers, tomatoes, chilies, and cotton

· Population in urban centers reached 60,000

· Surrounding region about 60,000 as well

· Made structures out of stone, adobe, mud, and plaster

· Used obsidian, jade, turquoise, animal skins, exotic bird feathers, and other luxury goods from Mesoamerica

· Borrowed much from the Maya city of Chichen Itza—932 miles from Tula

· Collapsed due to migrations from nomads also from NW Mexico

· Large fires destroyed parts of Tula

· Among the nomads were the Mexica, aka: the Aztecs

· Originated form Aztlan, “the place of the seven legendary caves”

· Kidnapped women from neighboring communities

· Seized land that belonged to others

· Settled on an island in Lake Texcoco

· Founded Tenochtitlan

· Mexica mastered chimpapa system of agriculture

· Created islands of fertile soil that floated on the lake to cultivate

· Sometimes drained lakes

· Mexica expand in all directions

· Capital contained about 200,000 people, 300,000 in surrounding areas

· Mexica used gold, silver, slaves henequen cloth, cotton cloth, animal skins, turkeys, dogs, hunting animals, maize, beans, pepper, cacao, and fruit

· Mexica warriors received intense training

· Especially those of noble rank

· Pueblo and Navajo societies cultivated beans, squashes, and sunflowers in the American SW

· Made structures out of stone and adobe

· Iroquois cultivated maize and beans in the American NE

· Mound building people built mounds on the E half of America

· Inca took control of the Andes mountains

· Built roads throughout their empire

· Oceanic peoples traded with other islands, and also settled on other islands

Development and interaction of cultures: GROTTS, JOSEPH

Religions:

· Mexica: Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, and Huitzilopochtli

· Inca: Inti and Viracocha

· Australia: religion was geared toward local issues like animals, plant life, and water.

· In the Pacific Islands, there were gods of war and agriculture, while, in individual islands, there were religions based on local affairs.

Belief Systems, Philosophies, and Ideologies:

· Mexica: Ritual Bloodletting, believed to set the world in motion

· Inca: Animal sacrifices, concept of sin, and judgment after

· Australia: Culture didn’t diffuse past regions inhabited by individual societies, geography stories

· Polynesia: Marae were ceremonial temples, construction varied among Polynesia

Science and Technology:

· Toltecs: In city of Tula, great weaving, pottery, and obsidian

· Building of Empires: Inca(South America) and Aztec(Central America)

· Stones with sharp cutting edges, copper, seashells, and minerals, found in North America

· Use of animals for food and resources

· Inca: Roads created to link Empire

· Polynesia: Travel was difficult, but mariners managed to have successful voyages

The Arts and Architecture

· Mound Building Peoples in North America

· Stone Palaces: Pohnpei in the Caroli

State-building, expansion and conflict: GRUSKY, ALAN

· Toltecs: emerge in the ninth and tenth centuries after the collapse of Teotihuacan

· Established large state, and built a compact regional empire, as well as a powerful army in the mid-tenth to the mid-twelfth century

· Tula was the Toltec capital city and center of trade

· Maintained close relations with societies of the Gulf coast and the Maya

· Decline after 12^th century

· Mexica/Aztecs: emerge in central Mexico in mid-thirteenth century

· Built capital city, Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), about 1345

· Fifteenth century, Aztecs launched military campaigns against neighboring societies

· Made alliances with Texcoco and Tlacopan

· Built an empire of twelve million people, including most of Mesoamerica

· The Empire had no bureaucracy or administration; and local administrators enforced tributes

· Chimu: a powerful kingdom in the lowlands of Peru before the mid-fifteenth century

· Inca: settled around Lake Titicaca around the mid-thirteenth century

· In 1438, Inca ruler Pachacuti launches military campaigns that vastly expand the Inca territory and authority

· By late 15^th century, the Incas built an empire stretching more than 4,000 kilometers including Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and parts of Chile and Argentina as well.

· With a population of 11.5 million, the Inca empire easily ranked as the largest state ever built in South America

· The Incas ruled as a military and administrative elite

· Oceanic Dynasties:

· Islands of Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji

· Sandeluer dynasty at Pohnpei in Carolina Islands, 1200-1600

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: HAN, CATHERINE

· Agricultural and pastoral production: “chinampa” systems were developed by the Mexica, which were small plots of land that floated along the lakes; they were used for cultivating crops such as maize, squash, beans, and tomatoes

· Mexica harvested seven crops a year; the amount they harvested depended on the climate and season.

· Industrialization societies that were formed were the Tula and Chicen Itza; this society was the important center of weaving, pottery, and obsidian work; they imported materials such as jade, animal skins, and exotic bird feathers; Chicen Itza was a Maya city that shared numerous architectural designs and art motifs. There were many empires but they were not industrialized.

· Trade and commerce: Mexica joined with Texcoco and Tlacopan called the Triple Alliance to guide the Aztec Empire. They exchanged rabbit fur, cacao, embroidered clothes, and jewelry. Cacao especially became a huge selling product.

· Societies in the North used canoe to travel and trade along the eastern half of North America; Cahokia was the center of trade and communication networks linking the eastern woodlands of North America with the lower Mississippi valley and the lands that bordered the Gulf of Mexico.

· Inca society however, didn’t have a market economy or a very large trade center because their long distance trade networks were all controlled by their central government; no one was permitted to become individual merchants. They produced pottery, textiles, and tools for local consumption and others for the high aristocratic and ruling classes.

· The labor systems: In Mexica, there were cultivators and slaves who were called the “calpulli”(community groups). The slaves worked as domestic servants and the cultivators delivered tribute payments; In the Inca society, their cultivators were similar to Mexica’s “calpullis”. The male peasants had jobs such as heavy labor, constructions, and building irrigation systems; the women would deliver their tribute through textiles, pottery, and jewelry.

· Capitalism: (1345) the Mexica settled along Lake Texcoco and found a city named Tenochtitlan and made that their capital. The Aztec Empire also appeared but carried no bureaucracy or administration. The Pueblo and Navajo societies built permanent stone and adobe buildings; the Kingdom of Chucito (12^th century), dominated the highland regions of Lake Titicaca and they cultivated mostly potato; Chimu was the lower lands (10th century), large and thriving society, irrigations systems flowing from the Andes mountains; Inca empire- (mid-13^th century), stretched from Quito to Santiago; military campaigns; they were ruled as a military and administrative elite; capital city was Cuzco.

· Tonga and Hawaii high chiefs wanted to bring close islands together to create large centralized states however there were several geographic and logistic difficulties they had to go through.

· Socialism: The Inca society’s trade issues were all supervised by the central government; the administrators took care of the organizing exchanges of agricultural products such as textiles and pottery.

Development and transformation of social structures: HAN, JASMINE

Gender roles and relations

· Mexica women

o almost no public role because society was so dominated by military values

o did not inherit property or hold official positions

o prominent in marketplaces and crafts like embroidery and needlework

o all Mexica women married; exception of those who served at temples

o principal function was to bear children; especially males who become warriors

o bearing of children was equally honored as a warrior capturing an enemy

o women who died in childbirth won same fame as warriors who died on battlefield

· Mexica men

o all males were looked upon as potential warriors

o men of noble birth received most careful instruction and intense training in military affairs; military elite like warriors was most honored

o Family and kinship

· Mexica society

o women only had considerable influence within family

o women received high honor as mothers of warriors

o women were subjected to strict authority of fathers and husbands

· Racial and ethnic constructions

o emergence of the Toltecs and the Mexica unified rule in central Mexico

o inhabitants of Oceania didn’t interact much; built/maintained own societies

o Inca empire; cultural traditions of Australian peoples weren’t diffused beyond the inhabited regions

Social and economic classes

· Elite classes in Aztec Empire

o Warriors, priests, and aristocrats

· Middle classes in Aztec Empire

o Artisans and merchants

· Low classes in Aztec Empire

o Commoners(cultivators) and slaves

· Elite Classes in Inca Empire

o Rulers

· Middle Classes in Inca Empire

o Aristocrats and priests

· Low classes in Inca Empire

o Cultivators and peasants

· Social classes of the Pacific Islands

o aristocratic and ruling elites

o high chiefs, lesser chiefs, and commoners

o priests and skilled artisans

1450 to 1750

Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections—Chapter 23

Interaction between humans and the environment: HARTMANN, KEIKO

Demography and Disease

· Europeans and their explorers passed many diseases over boundary lines of societies and cultures.

· Smallpox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, and influenza all hit the indigenous peoples of the Americas and the Pacific Islands.

· Those diseases caused sharp demographic losses to those regions.

· The diseases mostly killed younger people in the Eastern Hemisphere.

· In 1519, the Aztec Empire was hit by smallpox and experienced a 90% decrease in population.

· The Columbian Exchange brought population growth to the world after the Eurasian people recovered from the bubonic plague. This was because the Columbian Exchange brought increased nutritional diets with the global exchange of food crops and animals which helped feed the growing population.

Migrations

· A spread of populations through transoceanic migrations was experienced because of the Columbian Exchange.

· Large forced migrations involved enslaved Africans being transported to South America, North America, and the Caribbean.

· Smaller voluntary migrations involved Europeans settling in the Americas where indigenous populations died out because of infectious and contagious diseases.

· Numbers of European migrations to the western hemisphere, South Africa, Australia, and the Pacific Islands became massive in the 19^th century.

· Asian people migrated to tropical and subtropical destinations throughout the world.

Patterns of Settlement

· People traveled to new lands in the western hemisphere to settle there.

· This mainly included Europeans wanting to settle the lands that were cleared by diseases and Africans being forced to migrate by the Europeans.

Technology

· The technology of exploration was mainly for traveling.

· Ships and sails became more advanced by adding the Chinese invention of sternpost rudders and lateen sails, which were very maneuverable and could catch winds from the sides and behind.

· Navigation became more advanced from the Chinese compasses and the Greek and Persian astrolabes. Compasses showed direction using north, south, east, and west. Astrolabes showed direction using the latitude from the angle of the sun or North Star over the horizon.

Development and interaction of cultures: HAUBRICK, JESSICA

· Europeans began to travel the seas in order to expand Christianity and trade

· Maritime trade became a large part of Europe between 1400 and 1800, they also went of exploratory missions

· Europeans launched crusades against Muslims in the beginning Of the 11^th century

· New testament told Christians to seek converts for their faith

· The goal of spreading Christianity became a powerful justification and reinforcement for the more material motives for the voyagers of exploration

· Rudders on the sterns of ships were invented in order to make the maneuverability of the ship easier, ships also had mostly two main types of sail: triangular lateen sail, which allowed them to take advantage of winds from the side and behind and the square sail, which took advantage of winds blowing from behind

· Magnetic compasses and astrolabes were navigational equipment used on ships

· Compass was a Chinese invention from the tang or song dynasty and was diffused through the Indian Ocean basin while Greek and Persian astronomers used the astrolabe.

· Arabic sailors also used simpler devices for determining latitude which Portuguese sailors then used to create cross and back staffs

· European mariners gained knowledge of winds and currents for navigational reasons and used them to plan trips

· Strategy called Volta do mar (return through the sea) meant that instead of trying to sail through winds mariners followed the winds

· Over all this was an era of exploration (1400-1800) that led to the discovery of new lands and the invention of new maritime tools and other products that would aid in maritime exploration. Religion was used as another reason for maritime trade to expand to other regions.

State-building, expansion and conflict: HUR, JASON

· Huge amounts of expansion during this era:

· Expansion towards Atlantic, but most towards Asia:

· Portuguese seamen were the first ones to begin exploration. (hehe)

· Originally sought for seals, fish, etc.

· Formed plantations on the more southerly Atlantic islands, such as Cape Verde Islands, Sao Tome, Principe, and Fernando Po.

· Prince Henry of Portugal conquered the Moroccan port of Ceuta and sponsored a series of voyages for strategic locations.

· Bartolomeu Dias in 1488 rounded the Cape of Good Hope, thus beginning trade with the spice-laden Asia.

· Vasco de Gama’s almost fail voyage where only half his crew made it back but with enormous profits of pepper and cinnamon spurred more ~~idiots~~ attempts to trade with Asia for spices.

· English and Dutch follow by the late 16^th century into the Indian Ocean Basin.

· Trade slowly goes toward the West toward Americas.

· Christoforo Colombo, or Christopher Coloumbus, sought a trail towards Asia via a western route.

· Calculated that Earth was roughly only 17,000 nautical miles. Actually was 25,000. (Just a little bit off)

· Calls the Tainos as “Indians”.

· Magellan gets into conflict later on in the Philippines. Dies.

· Due to Columbian Exchange, many Tainos die out, resulting in increased import of slaves that affect the area to this day.

· Political Structures and Forms of Governance

· Portuguese

o Used heavy artillery to take over many areas.

o Man responsible for the heavy artillery was Afonso d’Alboquerque, and was it not only an impossible name to pronounce, but he forced safe-conduct passes that were ineffective.

o Safe-conduct passes were passes that allowed the ships to trade in that area.

o Portuguese hegemony lost power after the 1500’s because of the country’s small size, thus small human population.

· English and Dutch

o The English and the Dutch formed the beginning of the stock system-the joint stock company where people gave money in trade for handsome profits or minimal loss.

o English formed the United East India Company.

o Dutch formed the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC for short. You know. Whichever you like.

o Both the VOC and the United East India Company had no political oversight and abused their privileges, among which were the ability to declare war.

o English were successfully able to establish a hegemony that would last well into the 20^th century.

· Spanish

o The Spanish took over the Philippines under command of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi.

o Used the manila galleons as a trade system.

· Russia

o Expanded East in land, and took over a huge amount that extended into Siberia and displaced the people in Siberia.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: HWANG, ANDREW

· Columbian exchange was the global diffusion of everything.

· Most of the agriculture produced during the European Age of Exploration was cash crops. (tobacco was the most important)

· However, crops such as potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, and etc. were spread throughout the world via the Columbian Exchange.

· Horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens were brought to the Americas from Europe, and it increased food supplies.

· Europeans wanted to find a direct route from their homeland to Asian markets in order to avoid Muslim middle men.

· There were new technological innovations that helped sailing the seas a lot easier:

· Triangular Lateen sails : caught winds from behind and the sides

· Chinese astrolabe and stern-post rudder

· Portugal, England, and the Dutch had trading posts on Asian coasts in order to gain more money by trading directly with the Asian merchants.

· Two powerful join-stock companies arose in the 17^th century which were:

· the English East India Company (founded 1600 by the English)

· the United East India Company/Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie/VOC (founded by the Dutch in 1602)

· Commercial Rivalries between the British and the French led to the Seven Years' War

· British hegemony established after their victory in this war

· Columbian exchange brought about population shifts: it grew where crops and animals were diffused into, and it dropped where disease was transferred to.

Development and transformation of social structures: JAFAR, REVAN

· In the 1600’s the indigenous peoples of Siberia belonged to one of twenty-six major ethnic groups characterized by lifestyles such as hunting, trapping, fishing, or herding reindeer.

· Russian adventurers sought economic interest in Siberia and wanted to protect the “small peoples” (referring to those indigenous to Siberia) by absorbing them into Russian society.

· Only those who were criminals, abandoned hostages, slaves, or of low social status paid any interest to Russia’s attempts to convert the people of Siberia to Orthodox Christianity.

· Alliances with indigenous peoples were created during the Seven Years’ War in order to strengthen chances to establish hegemony in the Indian Ocean.

· African slaves were traded to work on plantations in the western hemisphere.

New Worlds: The America’s & Oceania—Chapter 25

Interaction between humans and the environment: JO, KRISTEN

Demography & Disease:

· The interaction between humans and the environment brought epidemic diseases such as smallpox, killing inhabitants of the Caribbean by the tens of thousands and weakening the strengths of the defensive line.

· Demographics of the New Worlds introduced new mixtures of race, mestizos. Zambos were indigenous and of African descent.

· Peninsulares were top of the social hierarchy, followed by Crillos.

Migrations:

· Spanish first arrived in the Caribbean, in the island of Hispaniola

· Settlers established the fort of Santo Domingo, capital of the Spanish Caribbean

Patterns of Settlement:

· The Spanish arrived in the Caribbean, the island of Hispaniola, made the island of Hispaniola which soon turned into the capital of the Caribbean

· Attracted settlers who attempted to support their society by mining gold

· Spanish explorers sought opportunities north of Mexico and Caribbean

· Established towns, forts and missions

· Shipwrecked adventurers found their way to modern Galveston, Texas and created the formation of multicultural societies * look at demography & disease

· European mariners first traveled to North America in search for fish

· Fur trade boomed

Technology

· Engenho, or the sugar mill

· Also referred to the complex of land, labor, buildings, animals, capitals & technical skills of sugar

Development and interaction of cultures: JOHNSON-GRAU, CORA

· Gold and silver mining by colonists in North and South America—silver production much more effective- silver more abundant

· Spanish missionaries tried to convert native peoples to Christianity- a motive for colonization

· Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún preserved information about Mexican peoples’ language, customs, beliefs, and language

· Indigenous peoples in Peru and Mexico still honored their own deities, still performing occasional human sacrifices

· Resistance to Christianity in many regions of the Americas

· The Virgin of Guadalupe- gained followers in mestizo and indigenous society- converted many to Christianity

· Roman Catholicism becomes major religion of South America and Mexico

· Saints that were like traditional gods were more popular with converts

· Less converts in North America- French and English colonists had less of an influence in that way

· However, French and English colonists still practiced Christianity, and it played a large role in life in North America

· Firearms, steel, cannons important in conquest

· Cuzco (capital of Incan Empire) had many temples and public buildings

State-building, expansion and conflict: JUNG, STACY

Political Structure and forms of Governance:

· Direct rule in South America: The two main centers of Spanish authority in the Americas were Mexico, known as New Spain, and Peru, known as New Castile. Each were governed by a viceroy, who were the king’s representatives to the Americas. To limit the power of the viceroys, the Spanish kings subjected them to the review of courts known as audiencias. The audiencias would hear out appeals against the viceroys’ rule and could direct their concerns to the Spanish king. The audiencias also conducted reviews of the viceroys’ performance at the end of their terms, and punishment was dealt to those who did not do their job correctly.

· Spanish administration in the Americas was severely limited due to transportation and communication difficulties, which made it harder for the viceroys to govern their respective territories. Because of this, local administration usually fell to audiencias or town councils.

· The Spanish monarchy had even less influence on their American colonies than the viceroys because it took around two years for Spain to respond to questions sent from Mexico or Peru. Viceroys also tended to procrastinate to avoid monarchial decisions that they did not like by responding that they would send more information on the affair.

· Indirect rule in North America: The French and English colonies in North American were subject to royal authority, but kept their own assemblies; there were no viceroys or audiencias in NA colonies.

Empires:

· Spanish colonists flocked to live in cities, allowing Spanish imperial authority to build a bureaucratic controlled network based in recently founded cities, such as St. Augustine in Florida, which was ruled from Mexico City. Administrators from Lima also oversaw affairs from Panama, Concepción, and Buenos Aires.

· While Spain built an empire in Mexico and Peru, Portuguese forces established an imperial presence in Brazil as a result of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Signed by Spain and Portugal in 1494, this treaty split the world along an imaginary north-south line370 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. Spain would be able to claim any land west of the line, given that these lands were not already under Christian rule. Portugal gained the same rights for lands east of this line. Thus Portugal was able to claim the northeastern part of the South American continent, known as Brazil for the brazilwood trees growing along the coast.

· Portuguese colonies grew in size when entrepreneurs established profitable sugar plantations on the Brazilian coast. A governor from Portugal was sent to oversee affairs and implement royal policy.

Revolts and Revolutions:

· The indigenous peoples of the Americas resisted against Spanish regimes by rebellion, halfhearted work, or retreat into the wilderness where Spanish power didn’t reach. The Pueblo revolt, led by the native shaman Popé, was an uprising in northern Mexico (modern-day American state of New Mexico) against forced labor on Spanish estates. The rebels attacked missions, killed priests and colonists, and were able to drive Spanish settlers out of the region for 12 years. Peru also faced a rebellion in 1780 by around 60,000 natives revolting in the name of the last of the Inca rulers, Túpac Amaru. The rebellion was staged for almost two years before the Spanish were able to suppress and execute the participants.

· Regional, Transregional, and global structures and organizations:

· The regional structure of South American societies was generally dominated by European or Euro-Americans. These societies were multicultural and ethically mixed, leading into a mestizo (mixed) society.

· Structure: peninsulares (those of European birth and origin), creoles (European parents, born in America), mixed races

· North America: regional interaction with native peoples; native terms for unfamiliar animals (raccoons, opossums), adapted clothing (moccasins and deerskin clothing), and guerilla war tactics; on the whole, discouraged relationships between those of different racial ancestry

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: KANE, DUSTIN

· The Spanish came and traded glass, beads and metal goods with the Tainos

o The Tainos had nothing of value to trade back

· Encomienda system established, a system where the Spanish enlisted natives as slaves

o Worked in gold mines or plantations

o Brutal working conditions, cruel punishments for insufficient work

· Spanish moved from the islands of the Caribbean to the mainland where there were rich sources of silver.

o The Caribbean islands began to facilitate plantation agriculture and they attracted French, English and Dutch entrepreneurs.

o Indigenous populations went extinct and African slaves began to do the work

· Colonists in North America planned on producing profitable cash crops, commodities and precious metals and trading these things for provisions from Europe

o Produced fur, pitch, tar, lumber, silver and gold

· Silver mining was huge in the Spanish Empire

o There was a lot of silver in Northern Mexico and the high, central Andes.

o Indigenous labor fueled many of the Spanish silver mines

o Most people volunteered to work, whereas large groups of people were conscripted and enslaved by the Spanish.

o The mita system was a system of conscripting labor for tasks no one wanted to do

· Silver was mostly traded to Europe where it was brought to the Asian markets

o Some silver was taken directly to Asia by the Manila Galleons

· Hacienda system created, where people made large estates that produced food and other provisions for miners

o Large estates that produced food for themselves and for the outer markets

o Similar to Feudal estates

o Indigenous people conscripted as laborers for these Haciendas through the encomienda system

· Engenho—Engine or the Brazilian sugar mill

o Horrible place that produced sugar through terrible working conditions

o Sugar was the main Brazilian export

o African slaves constantly imported to work in the Engenhos (because workers constantly died). “Every ton of Brazilian sugar cost one human life”.

· The Fur Trade was incredibly important in North America. The demand for beaver skin products was very high

· As beaver populations declined, the development of cash crops became more prevalent

o Lots of tobacco was cultivated and traded

o Indentured servants from Europe were the main source of labor for these plantations initially

o Eventually slaves became the main source of plantation labor.

o The Slave Trade was extremely profitable for North Americans who traded slaves in the West Indies more than they used them

· Pacific explorers traded nails, knives, iron tools and textiles to the natives of Pacific islands in exchange for sex and provisions

Development and transformation of social structures: KANG, CANDICE

· The Aztecs and Inca empires in Mexico and Peru were agricultural societies for a long time.

· Their end gave way to the establishment of Spanish colonial administration.

· Viceroys, the king’s reps in the Americas, had a lot of power; no viceroys in N. America.

· Colonists preferred to live in cities; the number of migrants increased.

· Cities developed much like their European counterparts with bureaucratic systems.

· Spanish/Portuguese saw the western hemisphere as exploitable land not for colonizing, yet migrants settled permanently in the Americas.

· European presence in the western hemisphere = intense interaction between hemispheres.

· Europeans greatly influenced the social order in the places they established rule.

· These colonies all became multicultural societies with a vast group of diverse peoples living together under European dominance.

· The lack of European women in many of Iberian colonies resulted in relationships of Spanish and Portuguese migrants with native women; mestizo society.

· Mestizos: individuals of Spanish and native parentage.

· Spanish settlers that lived in colonial cities kept much to themselves, while in the less settled regions, the Spanish men mingled with the native ladies and gave rise to mestizo society.

· Brazil had large mestizo populations as well as mulatto and zambo groups.

· Mulatto: Portuguese and African.

· Zambo: indigenous and African.

· Interracial marriages and communities increased greatly.

· Top of the social pyramid: peninsulares, migrants born in Europe.

· Next in the social pyramid: criollos (creoles), individuals born in the Americas of Iberian parents.

· Mestizos went from outcasts to essential contributors to their societies.

· Mixed individuals remained subordinate to European migrants.

· The closer to “European”, the higher up in the social pyramid.

· French/English colonies in N. America had many more women.

· French and English settlers married within their own groups.

· French fur traders mingled with the native ladies and had metis (French equivalent to mestizos).

· French colonial cities had distinctively less associations between the French and the natives.

· The English had the least of mingling between people of different ancestry.

· English colonists looked down on the indigenous people as lazy and uncivilized = racism.

· Their disdain to non-Europeans didn’t keep them from interacting with them to their advantage.

· Colonial economies where sugar export was very important, planters/owners of mills were extremely privileged.

· Increase in cultivation and production of exports demanded a source of more labor.

· The Portuguese plantations imported slaves as early as the 1530s.

· Indentured servants flowed into the American colonies in hopes of becoming successful after a few years’ of labor. This continued into the early twentieth century.

· Most indentured servants gained freedom, but others remained in bondage.

· Virginia recognized all blacks as slaves (1661).

Africa and the Atlantic World—Chapter 26

Interaction between humans and the environment: KAUFMAN, CLAIRE

Demography and disease

· American food crops were brought to sub-Saharan Africa by Portuguese

o Most important was manioc

o Population growth

§ 1500 CE – 34 million

§ 1800 CE – 60 million

· The journey from Africa to the Americas and the Caribbean consisted of incredibly brutal and inhumane treatment of the slaves by Europeans

o The middle passage

o Filthy and crowded slave ships

o Starvation and disease caused very high rates of mortality in the early days of the slave trade

· Slaves in the Caribbean and south America worked under harder conditions that slaves in North America

o Tropical diseases

o Low standards of sanitation and nutrition

Migrations

· Bantu-speaking peoples migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa

o 2000 BCE to 1000 CE

· Islamic slave trade

o Muslim merchants from North Africa, Arabia, and Persia brought African slaves and sold them through the Mediterranean basin, southwest Asia, India, Southeast Asia, and China

o Raided villages, capturing innocent individuals and forcing them into servitude

o Around ten million Africans were forced to migrate because of the Islamic slave trade

· Atlantic slave trade

o First European slave traders were Portuguese

§ Not successful through raiding

§ Learned to purchase slaves rather than capturing them

§ By 1450, delivering five hundred slaves per year to Portugal and Spain

§ Also delivered slaves to Portuguese island colonies in the Atlantic

o Spanish joined slave trade

§ Imported African slaves to work as laborers in the Caribbean and the Americas

o Huge population of Africans going from Africa to Caribbean and Americas

§ By the end of the slave trade, about twelve million Africans had undergone the involuntary migration to the western hemisphere

§ 33,000 per year during the eighteenth century

Patterns of settlement

· The Portuguese built the colony of Angola after destroying the Kingdom of Kongo

o First European colony in sub-Saharan Africa

· Dutch mariners built a trading post at Cape Town in 1652

o Soon after large numbers of Dutch colonists settled throughout south Africa

· Africa Diaspora – the dispersal of African peoples and their descendants

· More slaves went to South America and the Caribbean

o Mostly male slaves were imported so no reproduction

Technology

· Musket-bearing Moroccan army brought down the Songhay empire

· As the slave trade grew, slavers built larger ships

· Slave trade ended as Europeans shifted to manufacturing, as opposed to slave industries.

Development and interaction of cultures: KIM, HAEJO

Religion

· Islam and Christianity were two of the important religions of the Africans

· Islam

o came from the Muslim traders

o syncretic- combined African indigenous beliefs within Africa.

o Fulani were important people that practiced Islam

§ established Islamic schools

§ strengthened Islam

· Christianity

o Spread similarly with Islam

o Introduced by missions from Roman Catholic Church

o blended to form syncretic cults

· Creole Religions of Slaves

o formed in slave societies

o based off of Christian Churches and paraphernalia

o established in Haiti(Vodou), Cuba(Santeria), and Brazil(Candomble)

o belief in spirits and magic and rituals had drumming, dancing and sacrifices

Belief System, philosophies, and ideologies

· Syncretic Cults

o Religions always blended with African Cultures and other religions

§ belief of the spirits and magic

§ retained African culture and beliefs

· Antonian Movement

o Dona Beatriz comes up with new idea for Christianity.

o Jesus Christ was black, Kongo is the true Holy Land, heaven is for Africans

o arrested and killed by King Pedro IV

Science and Technology

· Firearms

o Also used to first capture slaves before they were bought

o used to suppress slaves and their revolts

o effective against traditional weapons

· Ships

o New designs for ships changed for transporting slaves

o designed to carry more slaves

o very nasty and filthy places

Arts and Architecture

· Plantations

o Plantation were built across America and the Caribbean

o designed in order to grow and manufacture sugar and other cash crops

· Buildings

o Based off of Islamic and Christian style buildings

o mosques and the use of mud-bricks were used to build houses in Africa

o also many constructed forts and buildings across Africa

o purposes of economic gain for the Europeans and Africans

State-building, expansion and conflict: KIM, HELEN

POLITICAL STRUCTURES

· Many Bantu speaking people established themselves in units formed within their villages – like clans governed by kinship groups.

· As their population increased however, they found themselves in a more complex political structure like chiefdoms, and regional kingdoms.

EMPIRES

· Empires that were part of Africa and the Atlantic World were (in chronological order):

o the kingdom of Ghana,

o the Mali Empire - which replaced the kingdom of Ghana

o the Songhay Empire in the city of Gao - emerged during the weakening of the Mali Empire

o Regional Swahili city-states – took over the Songhay empires in west Africa

o The kingdoms of Kongo, Ndongo, Luba, and Lunda – located in the sub-Saharan region

NATIONS AND NATIONALISM

· The regions of Africa and the Atlantic experienced a heavy dose of influence from several European nations due to foreign colonial expansions from the European settlers.

o The first European colony in sub-Saharan Africa was the Portuguese colony of Angola.

o Foreign settlers influenced the spread of Islam and Christianity in the Sub-Saharan Africa.

REVOLTS AND REVOLUTIONS

· Numerous slave revolts took place in plantation societies.

· The largest and only successful slave revolt was the rebellion in the French sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, where slaves were able to declare their independence from France and establish their own self-governing land renamed Haiti.

REGIONAL, TRANSREGIONAL, AND GLOBAL STRUCTURES AND ORGANIZATIONS

· Most of the regional governments in Africa consisted of kingdoms, which had previously been chiefdoms or kinship-based clans.

· Many of the European empires who had begun to hold an influence in the Sub-Saharan regions through their newly established colonies, changed many of the African kingdoms into ones that were Europeans held considerable political power in their affairs.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: KIM, JANE

No work completed

Development and transformation of social structures: KIM, JU YOUNG

· Many Bantu-speaking people organized themselves into villages and clans governed by kinship groups rather than formal states.

· Early modern African society followed long-established patterns. For example, kinship groups, the most important social units that emerged after the Bantu migrations, continued to serve as the basis of social organization and sometimes political organization as well.

· Within agricultural villages throughout sub-Saharan Africa, clans under the leadership of prominent individuals organized the affairs of their kinship groups and disciplined those who violated community standards.

· In regions where kingdoms and empires had not emerged, clan leaders consulted with each other and governed large regions.

· Because African law did not recognize private property, wealth and power in Africa came not from the possession of land in communities but, rather, from control over the human labor that made the land productive.

· While diverting labor form Africa to other lands, the slave trade also distorted African sex ratios, since approximately two-thirds of all exported slaves were males.

· Preference for male slaves had social implications for lands that provided slaves. By the late eighteenth century, women made up more than two-thirds of the adult population of Angola. This sexual imbalance encouraged Angolans to practice polygamy and forced women to take on duties that in earlier times had been the responsibility of men.

· In Europe, African slaves usually worked as miners, porters, or domestic servants, since free peasants and serfs cultivated the land.

· Plantations featured a sharp, racial division of labor: small numbers of European or Euro-American supervisors governed plantation affairs, and large numbers of African or African-American slaves performed most of the community’s physical labor.

· The Atlantic slave trade deprived African societies of about sixteen million individuals, in addition to another several million consumed by the continuing Islamic slave trade during the early modern era.

· Because trade brought new food crops such as manioc, maize, and peanuts to sub-Saharan Africa, American food crops supported expanding populations in all regions of sub-Saharan Africa during early modern times.

The Islamic Empires—Chapter 28

Interaction between humans and the environment: KIM, MIN JUNG

Demography and disease

· Indian population increased through agriculture:

o 105 million in 1500

o 135 million in 1600

o 165 million in 1700

o 190 million in 1800

· Safavid population grew less rapidly:

o 5 million in 1500

o 6 million in 1600

o 8 million in 1800

· Ottoman population increased then decreased:

o 9 million in 1500

o 28 million in 1600

o Declined to 24 million, after 1600-19^th c.

· Anatolia population increased:

o 6 million in 1500

o 7.5 million in 1600

o 8 million in 1700

o 9 million in 1800

Migrations:

· Ottoman Empire→ Byzantine Empire

o Mehmed the Conqueror (reigned 1451-1481) captured Constantinople in 1453; it became Istanbul, the Ottoman capital & expanded to Serbia, Greece, Albania & attacked Italy

o Sultan Selim the Grim (reigned 1512-1520) occupied Syria and Egypt Suleyman the Magnificent (reigned 1520-1566) expanded into southwest Asia and central Europe

· The Safavids, Turkish conquerors of Persia and Mesopotamia

· Mughal Empire

o Babur (1523-1530), Central Asian Turkish adventurer invaded India in 1523, seized Delhi in 1526

o Akbar (reigned 1556-1605), a brilliant charismatic ruler expanded to Gujurat, Bengal, and southern India

o Aurangzeb (1659-1707) expanded the empire to almost the entire Indian subcontinent

· Patterns of settlement:

o All three Islamic empires were military creations

o Devotion to Islam encouraged rulers to extend their faith to new lands

o All three sponsored arts and public works (mosques, palaces, schools, hospitals, etc.)

· Technology

o Gunpowder used in battles and sieges

o Printing Press introduced by Jewish refugees to Anatolia, late fifteenth century. Ottoman authorities banned printing in Turkish and Arabic. In India, Mughal rulers showed little interest.

Development and interaction of cultures: KIM, PATTIE

Religion, Belief System, Philosophies, and Ideologies

· Twelver Shiism – Religious leaders; imams who believed that Muhammad was still alive and one day return and spread true religion. Time period: Safavid Empire.

o Wore red hats which is why they are called the qizilbash (“red heads”)

· Religious Diversity

o Ottoman contained Christians/Jews.

o Safavid: Zoroastrian/Jew/Christian.

o Mughal: Hindu/Muslims/Jains/Zoroastrians/Christians/Sikhism.

o Portuguese Goa – Center for Christian mission in India, and established schools.

· Akbar’s Divine Faith created by Akbar.

o Strictly monotheistic, drew heavily from Islam, drew inspiration from Zoroastrianism and Shiite/Sufi teachings.

o Purpose was to create unity in his diverse empire.

o Tolerated Hinduism; supported Sikhs: religion combined with both Hinduism and Islam

o Status of Religious Minorities

· Subject people that are not Muslim were called dhimmi

o Paid jizya(tax) to show loyalty, also gave privilege to : personal freedom, property, practice of religion, ability to handle their own legal affairs.

o Later abolished by Akbar, tolerated all faiths.

o Millet – religious communities that kept their own civil laws, traditions, and languages. (Ottoman Empire)

· Women and Politics

o Islamic society—follows Chinggis Khan, who revered wife.

o Women had enormous power, however, complains

§ Ex) Hurrem Sultana, convinced Suleyman the Magnificent to kill his first son in order to secure succession of her child.

Science and Technology

· Large scale maps of Europe

o Drawn by Piri Reis, Ottoman cartographer.

· Printing press introduced first by Jewish refugee from Spain.

o Didn’t allow the printing of books in Turkish and Arabic language. 1729 – Ban released.

· Ottoman stopped building ships, and ordered foreign products: Europe.

Arts and Architecture

· Istanbul

o Capital of Ottoman empire.

o Architect, Sinan Pasha (1489-1588) built monument. Blended with Islamic and Byzantine architectural element.

o Looks like Hagia Sofia

· Isfahan

o Queen of Persian cities

o Filled with jewels

· Fatehpur Sikri

o City, planned/built by Akbar.

o Private residence and retreat for rulers.

o Palaces, decoration of elephant stones

· The Taj Mahal

o Most famous Mughal monument

o 20,000 workers, 18 years.

o Marble mosque and tomb

o A tomb for his wife.

State-building, expansion and conflict: KIM, SOO BIN

Political structures and forms of governance

· The Ottoman Empire: One man rule.

· The Safavid Empire: Twelver Shiism.

· The Mughal Empire: One man rule.

Empires

· Ottoman

· Safavid

· Mughal

Nations and nationalism

· Ottomans covered the northwestern Anatolia then spread out to part of Algeria, Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Armenia.

· Safavids were able to seize control of Iran, Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and central Asia.

o Mughals were able to expand from Kabul through the Punjab to the borders of Bengal.

Revolts

· Ottomans did not have a revolt.

· The Safavids had powerful enemies like the Sunni Ottomans. Battle of Chaldiran resulted in a Safavid loss and Ismail retreated.

· Out of all the Mughal leaders, Aurangzeb was the one who dealt with rebellions between the Hindus and Muslims.

Regional, transregional, and global structures and organizations

· Ottomans wanted to build powerful military forces and outfit their forces with gunpowder weapons and use them in battles.

· Safavids wanted to have one religion, Shiism, and terminate the Sunnis.

· In the Mughal Empire, Babur wanted to make an empire like Tamerlane. Akbar pursued a policy of religious toleration that he hoped would reduce tensions between the Muslims and Hindu.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: KIM, SUJI

· Productive agricultural economies were the foundations of all Islamic empires.

o The surplus agricultural production was used to finance armies and bureaucracies.

o They relied on crops of wheat and rice

o The Columbian exchange brought American crops to the Islamic empires: maize, potatoes, tomatoes, and others. Potatoes were made into curries in southern India. Maize wasn’t used for human consumption, but for rather feed for animal stocks.

o The Columbian exchange encouraged the consumption of coffee and tobacco. Coffee originated from Ethiopia and cultivated in southern Arabia and it did not become popular until the sixteenth century. It traveled to Europe, then to the Americas where there were plantations to the European and American merchants supplying the Muslim markets with both coffee and tobacco.

· Tobacco

o English merchants introduced tobacco around 1600 to the Ottoman Empire saying that it was useful for medicinal purposes. The increasing popularity of tobacco and coffee encouraged entrepreneurs to establish coffeehouses where customers can indulge in coffee and their nicotine.

· Trade

o The Islamic empires ruled lands that participated actively in the global trade networks. The capital at Bursa in the Ottoman Empire was the terminus of a caravan route that brought raw silk from Persia to supply the Italian market.

o The Ottomans granted special trading concessions to merchants from England and France to cement alliances against common enemies in Spain and central Europe.

o Aleppo became an emporium for foreign merchants engaging primarily in the spice trade and served as local headquarters for the operations of the English Levant Company.

o In the Safavid Empire, European merchants traded raw silk, carpets, ceramics, and high quality craft items.

o The English East India Company, the French East India Company, and the Dutch Voc traded with the Safavids.

o The English company often supplies military advisors to introduce gunpowder weapons to Safavid armed forces and provided them with a navy.

o The Mughals did not pay as much attention to foreign trade as the Ottomans or Safavids, but they derived a significant income from foreign trade.

Development and transformation of social structures: KIM, SUNG HYUN

In the steppe empires the ruler’s relatives often managed components of the states, and succession to the throne became a hot contest between competing members of the family. The Mughal Empire in particular became tied up in family controversies: conflicts among Mughal princes and rebellions of sons against fathers were recurrent features throughout the history of the empire. The Safavids also engaged in murderous struggles for the throne. Shan Abbas himself lived in fear that another member of the family would challenge hi,. He kept his sons confined to the palaces and killed or blinded relatives he suspected, almost wiping out his family in process. The early Ottomans assigned provinces for the sultan’s sons to administer but kept the empire as a whole tightly unified. After the fifteenth century, the sultans moved to protect their position by eliminating family rivals. Mehmed the Conqueror decreed that a ruler could legally kill off his brothers after taking the throne. His successors observed this tradition in turko-Mongol Style-by strangling victims with a silk bow string so as not to shed royal blood-until 1595, when the new sultan executed nineteen brothers, many of them infants, as well as fifteen expectant mothers. After that episode, sultans confined their sons in special quarters of the imperial harem and forbade them to go outside except to take the throne.

Although Muslim theorists universally agreed that women should have no role in public affairs and decried the involvement of women in politics as a sure sign of decadence, women played important roles in managing the Islamic empires. Many Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal emperors followed the example of Chinggis Khan, and his chief wife or favorite concubine enjoying special privileges and authority. Ottoman courtiers often complained loudly about the “rule of women” thus offering eloquent testimony to the power that women could wield. Suleyman the Magnificent became infatuated with Hurrem Sultana, who Is a concubine of Ukrainian origin. Suleyman elevated her to the status of a legal wife, consulted her on state policies, and deferred to her judgment even to the point of executing his eldest son for treason when Hurrem wanted him eliminated to secure the succession of her own child. After HUrrem’s death, Suleyaman constructed a mausoleum for her next to his own in the courtyard of the great mosque in Istanbul. Women also played prominent political roles in the Safavid and Mughal Empires. In Safavid Persia, Mahd-e Olya, the wife of one shah, was the de facto ruler, Her efforts to limit the power of the qizilbash so enraged them that they murdered her The aunt of another shah scoled the ruler for neglecting his duties and usesd her own money to raise an army to put down a revolt. The Mughal emperor Jahnagir was content to let raise his wife. Bur Jahan run the government and even the conscientious Muslim Auragnzeb listend to this daughter’s political advice. Shah Jahan’s devotion to his wife, mumtaz Mahal, has become world famous because of the Taj Muhal.

The three main social classes of ancient Islam were the Clergy and Nobles, the common folk such as merchants and businessmen, and the slaves.

1750 to 1914

Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World – Chapter 29

Interaction between humans and the environment: KIM, YEE LEE

Demography and Disease:

· 1774-1793 King Louis XVI was forced to summon the Estates General. France was divided in to 3 Estates/political classes.

o First estate-100,000 Roman Catholic clergy.

o Second estate-400,000 nobles.

o Third estate-24 million.

· Population of Saint-Domingue (1790)-40,000 white French settlers; 30,000 free people of color or gens de couleur. 500,000 black slaves.

o Morality rate of slaves were very high due to the working conditions in plantations.

· Latin America population (1800)

o peninsulares-30,000

o Creole-3.5 million

o Iberian colonies-10 million people in the less privileged class.

Migrations:

· In Saint-Domingue, new slaves from Africa were constantly imported to replace lost laborers.

Patterns of Settlement:

· All states began to accept the idea of freedom and equality for all citizens by the 20^th century.

· Declaration of Independence: united the thirteen colonies in the United States of America

· Haiti (Saint-Domingue) also declares independence (the second to gain independence in the western hemisphere.

Technology:

· Enlightenment thinkers used printers to publish works.

· Guillotine-A machine that brought about supposedly humane executions by quickly severing a person’s head, compared to an executer using a sword or an axe which caused suffering since it took more than one try.

o The guillotine was used to execute King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette in 1793.

Development and interaction of cultures: KIM, YEJEE

Belief systems, philosophies, and ideologies

· Enlightened and Revolutionary Ideas

o Popular Sovereignty- During the seventeenth and eighteenth century, philosophers and other advocates of Enlightenment ideas began to question long standing ideas of sovereignty. The English philosopher John Locke formulated one of the most influential theories of contractual government. In the Second Treatise of Civil Government. He said that governments formed long ago when people decided to work together to form civil society, and appointed rulers to protect and promote their public interest. Saying everyone has a right to life, liberty, and property. Any ruler who violated these rights, may be subject to disposition, because they got their authority from the people.

o Individual Freedom- Enlightenment thinkers addressed issues of freedom and equality as well as sovereignty. People like Voltaire resented persecution of religious minorities, and called for religious tolerance and freedom to express their views openly.

o Equality- Many Enlightenment thinkers called for equality as well. They condemned the legal and social privileges enjoyed by an aristocrat, who contributed equally to society like any other social class. An advocate for this was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who identified with simple people. The Social contract argues that the society as a whole was sovereign, and that in all ideal societies all individuals would participate in the formulation of policy and the creation of laws.

· The Emergence of Ideologies: Conservatism and Liberalism

o Conservatism- The English philosopher Edumund Burke held that society was compact between people’s descendants, ancestors, and yet unborn. While admitting the need for gradual change that came about by general consensus. Burke condemned radical or revolutionary change, which in his view would only lead to anarchy.

o Liberalism- They viewed change as normal and welcomed it as an agent of progress. They viewed conservatism as an effort to justify the satus quo, maintain the priveledge enjoyed by favored classes. A prominent liberalism philosopher was John Stuart Mill.

· Development of Nationalism

o Cultural Nationalism- Early nationalists thought often sought to deepen appreciation for the historical experiences of the national community and foster pride in its cultural accomplishments.

o Political Nationalism- In Italy, nationalist activist Giuseppe Mazzini formed a group called Young Italy that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an Italian national state.

o Zionism- Due to the anti-semitism movement the resulted from nationalism, Zionism also developed.

State-building, expansion and conflict: KOSTINSKIY, DANIEL

No Work Completed

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: KUFFEL, RANDALL

· Colonies used for the production of raw materials

· French colony of Saint-Domingue used to create sugar, coffee, and cotton- accounted for 1/3 of France’s foreign trade

· Saint-Domingue housed 500,000 slaves in 1790

· Only successful slave revolt on Saint-Domingue that was led by Vodou priest Boukman and Toussaint Louverture that lasted between 1791-1803. Republic of Haiti established

· The abolishment of slavery began after American, French, and Haitian revolutions.

· United States banned slave trade in 1808. Slavery itself in 1865

· France banned slave trade in 1814. Slavery itself in 1848

· The Netherlands banned slave trade in 1817

· Spain banned slave trade in 1845

· Cuba banned slavery itself in 1886

· Brazil banned slavery in 1888

· British navy patrolled the west coast of Africa to stop illegal slave trade

· In South America, the end of slavery came with independence from Spain

· Mexico banned slavery in 1829 for humanitarian reasons and to stop Americans and their slaves from coming to Spain to grow cotton cheaply

· William Wilberforce, a member of the English parliament worked to end slave trade and slavery.

· England abolished slavery throughout their empire in 1833 with 20 million pounds of sterling as compensation to slave owners

· Freedom, but usually no equality for recently emancipated slaves

Development and transformation of social structures: KUM, GLORIA

Gender roles and Relations

· Women participated with men to abolish slavery

· Women supported men in public affairs

Family and Kinship

· The Civil Code restored patriarchal authority in the family by making women and children subservient to male leads of households

Racial and Ethnic Constructions

· Abolition of slavery brought legal freedom for African and African slaves, but not political equality

Social and Economic classes

· After the women rights movement, more women received formal education

· Planters had a high advantage over slaves

· The Civil Code (from Napoleon from 1804) affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men and established a merit-based society where individuals qualify for education

Societies at Crossroads—Chapter 32

Interaction between humans and the environment: LEAZER, NATHANIEL

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

· They constructed railroads, utilities, and mining enterprises.

THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

· The Russians created new railroad systems for getting across land.

· Emancipation of serfs, who in turn worked on the land, almost like slaves.

· New railway construction (trans-Siberian railroad) for large-scale settlement, exploitation, and industrialization.

THE BRITISH

· The British grew opium on their lands in India.

JAPAN

· They had declining agricultural productivity, periodic crop failures, and famines. This led to turmoil in Japanese society.

· Peasants had to give 40-50% of their crop yields as taxes.

Development and interaction of cultures: LEE, DEBORAH

Religions

· Tanzimat reformers guaranteed public trials, rights of privacy and equality before law for Ottoman subjects whether they were Muslims or not.

· Marriage and divorce matters were under religious laws

· Educational reforms undermined the ulma, who controlled religious education for Muslims

· Tanzimat provoked spirited pposition (Reformers posed a threat to the empire’s Islamic foundation).

· Many Muslims viewed extension of legal equality to Jews & Christians as an act contrary to basic principles of the Islamic Law

Belief Systems, philosophies, ideologies

· Young Turks used recently established newspapers to spread their message to one another & as a faster way.

· They worked to make Turkish the official language of the empire.

· Zemstvo was created by the government to deal with local issues of health, education & welfare.

· Hong Xiuquan (village school teacher) provided inspiration and leadership for Taiping Rebellion.

· Taiping Reform Program contained many radical features that appealed to discontented subjects, including abolition of private property, creation of communal wealth to be shared when necessary, prohibition of foot binding and concubinage, free public education, simplification of written languages, and literacy.

Science and Technology

· Witte’s masterpiece was the railway construction that linked far-flung regions of Russian empire and other industries/regions. (EX) One new line (which was most important) was the trans-Siberian railway, which opened Siberia to large-scale settlements, exploitation, and industrialization.

· Self-Strengthening Movement empowered imperial grants of authority that permitted them to raise troops, levy taxes and run bureaucracies.

à It blended Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology

· The leaders built weapons, opened steel foundries with blast furnaces.

· Establishment of telegraph, railed, and steamship lines had tied local and regional markets into natural economic networks.

State-building, expansion and conflict: LEE, GINGER

· European & U.S. had industrial capitalist governments.

· Very into industrialization + expansion

· The capitulations also served as instruments of economic penetration by European businesspeople who established tax-exempt banks and commercial enterprises in the Ottoman Empire, and they permitted foreign governments to levy duties on goods sold in Ottoman ports.

· the reforms of Mahmud II; to the restoration of traditional Ottoman military + had European style army.

· There was legal and educational reforms; the tempo reform increased rapidly during the reorganization a.k.a. Tanzimat, era. In 1839-1876. (Army principal target of reform efforts)

· Tanzimat reformers attacked Ottoman law.

· Used French legal system as guide: commercial code (1850), penal code (1885), a maritime code (1863), and new civil code (1870-1876).

· opposition to the Tanzimat came from religious conservatives, argued threat to the empire’s Islamic foundation.

· The Young Turk Era: Abdul Hamid sultan reign from (1876-1909). The most active dissident organization was the Ottoman society for the Union and Progress, a.k.a. Young Turk party (founded in 1889). They called for universal suffrage, equality before law, freedom of religion, free public education, secularization of the state, and the emancipation of women.

· Russian empire in war defeat and social reform.

· The Crimean war (1853-1856); showed weakness of Russian empire. Not industrialized.

· Emancipation of serfs; zemstvos (elected district assemblies).

· there were protests, repression, and terrorism, finally the revolution of 1905.

· china not industrialized government weak, had to follow series of treaties.

· The Taiping rebellion/program, the self strengthening movement, spheres of influence, hundred days reform, the boxer rebellion. (Tried to keep culture with industrialization)

· Japan; reforms, there is foreign pressure for foreign states, had to give in to unequal treaties like china.

· the Meiji restoration; foreign influences, the abolition of social order, revamping the tax systems, changes the constitutional government (to more European), remodels the economy. Completely changed the government into more industrialized.

· Japan gets stronger through their industrialization and change in government, able to defeat others like, Chinese empire (1894-1895) and Russian empire (in 1904-1905). Japan becomes power house.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: LEW, KIRSTEN

Agricultural and pastoral production:

· Declining agricultural productivity causes famine

· Little increase in agricultural production after emancipation of serfs in Russia

· Not enough land cultivated to support growing population

Trade and commerce:

· European merchants dealt directly with India and China; no Ottoman intermediaries

· Atlantic Ocean basin is the focus of European trade

· Ottomans import European products; export raw materials

· Opium trade between British and Chinese: Chinese get opium, British get silver coin

· Trade is illegal but very profitable, leads to war

· China and Japan opened to foreign trade

Labor systems:

· Peasantry work

· Emancipation of serfs (Russia)

· Poor conditions for factory workers and laborers

· Government crushed workers unions

Industrialization:

· Ottoman Empire: construction of railroads

· Count Sergei Witte responsible for industrialization of Russia

· Railway construction, opening of Siberia to settlement and exploitation, establishment of savings banks, high protective tariffs, foreign loans, steel and coal industries

· China: railway and mineral rights of their land given to foreign powers

· Japan: Tokugawa remodels economy to industrialize

· Modern transportation, communications, and educational infrastructure

· Telegraph, railroad, and steamship= national economic network

· Abolition of guild restrictions and internal tariffs

Capitalism and socialism:

· Russia: establishment of industry and businesses

· Business class protected by government policy towards domestic industry, rich rewards for entrepreneurs

· Japan: establishment of industry and businesses

· Fixed-money tax

· Government established pilot programs and enterprises late sold to private groups

· Zaibatsu-financial cliques that were concentrations of enormous economic power

Development and transformation of social structures: LIKOMANOVA, IVON

Gender roles and relations

· Mahmud II, Selim III cousin, who became sultan, created a system of secondary education, which consisted of scientific, technical, and military academics for boys to facilitate the transition from mosque schools(primary education). Girls didn’t have the same privileges when it came to education.

· Taipings decreed the equality between men and women. However, they still divided their army into separate divisions of men and women.

· Family and kinship

Racial and ethnic constructions

· Throughout the Russian empire, Jews were targets of suspicion. Many Russian subjects started anti-Jewish riots, because they were jealous of their business success.

Social and economic classes

· Tanzimat reformers issued decrees that were designed to give all Ottoman subjects(Muslim and non-Muslim) more rights. Key decrees include measures that guaranteed: public trials, rights of privacy, and equality before the law

· Peasants made up most of the Russian population. Most were serfs who were bound to the lands they cultivated. Although serfdom was as cruel and exploitative as slavery, landowners and the state believed it guaranteed social stability.

· The key social reform in Russia was the emancipation of serfs.

o Tsar Alexander II abolished the institution of serfdom in 1861, although it remained in practice for decades.

o Serfs won their freedom, had their labor obligations gradually decline, and gained opportunities to become landowners

o Peasants won few political rights and had to pay a redemption tax for most of the land they received.

· In Russia, all social classes, including peasants, were allowed to elect representatives to district assemblies known as zemstovs to discuss local issues of health, education, and warfare.

· However, the landowning nobility possessed a much larger share of votes and seats.

· Industrialization in Russia forced the recently freed serfs to labor in factories. Industrial growth also generated a new social class: the urban working class.

o The working classes were treated horribly.

o They began to form trade unions, strikes, and even began underground movements.

o They also created new councils known as soviets which were used to organize strikes and negotiate with employers and government authorities.

· Foreign investors and the Russian business class benefited from the intensified industrialization.

· Chinese peasants were also discontent with the concentration of land in the hands of wealthy elites, as well as increasing poverty, and so led any large scale rebellions.

· Some of the Taiping reforms include:

o Abolition of private property

o Creation of common wealth that would be shared based on needs

o Prohibition of foot binding and concubines

o Free public education and literacy for the majority of the population

· Peasants and the urban poor in Japan also experienced hunger and destitution.

· The samurai and daimyo class fell into debt to the growing merchant class.

· The Tokugawa bakufu, specifically Mizuno Tadakuni, responded with conservative reforms. For example, he:

o Abolished several merchant guilds

o Cancelled debts that the Daimyo and Samurai owed merchants

o Compelled peasants to return from the cities to the land and cultivate rice

· The Meiji reforms include a change in the social order. Daimyos were replaced with new prefecture governors that controlled the metropolitan districts. The government also abolished the samurai class.

· During the late 19^th century economic power remained in the hands of a small group of people known as zaibatsu(financial cliques)

· Japanese peasants provided most of the domestic capital that supported industrialization.

Building Global Empires—Chapter 33

Interaction between humans and the environment: LIM, RACHEL

Demography and disease

· Indians had low-level bureaucratic positions while British officials controlled all domestic and foreign policies in India. (British imperial rule p. 917)

· French encouraged conversion to Christianity in India but the British didn’t.(French Indochina p.919)

· European migration to Australia and New Zealand brought diseases like smallpox and measles that devastated the indigenous people. (p. 925 settler colonies in the pacific)

· Whalers, merchants, and missionaries were the principle European visitors to Pacific islands during the 19^th century (p.926 imperialist in paradise).

· Scientific Racism: Charles Darwin, and Joseph Arthur de Gobineau/Popular Racism (P.934-946)

MIGRATIONS

· 1788: About 100,000 British convicted criminals settled in Australia and mostly supported themselves by herding sheep. European migration to Australia and New Zealand brought diseases and fueled conflict between European settlers and native populations. (Settler Colonies in the Pacific P. 925)

· LABOR MIGRATIONS PAGE 932

o Mass migrations during the workers began during the 19^th and 20^th century to take advantage of the natural resources and agricultural products of subject lands.

o Europeans migrated to temperate lands to work as free cultivators or indentured laborers. [32 million went to the US 1800-1914]

o Migrants from Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands moved to tropical and subtropical lands, where they worked as indentured laborers on plantations, or manual laborers for mining enterprises. [2.5 million people left their homes between 1820 and 1914]

TECHNOLOGY

· Transportation technologies: steamships and railroads P. 914

o The British took advantage of steam power to create steamships equipped with guns. (1830s)

o Steam ships ignored winds and went faster then any sailboats.

o The Suez Canal (constructed 1859-1859) and the Panama Canal (1904-1914) allowed naval vessels travel rapidly between the world’s seas and oceans.

· Military Technologies page 914-915

o Smoothbore, muzzle-loading muskets were the most advanced firearms of the early 19^th cent.

o 1870s: rifled machine guns, 1880s: Maxim gun- a light and powerful weapon that fired eleven bullets per second.

· Communications Technologies Page 915

o The invention of telegraphs made it possible to exchange messages faster.

o 1902: cables linked all parts of the British Empire throughout the world.

Development and interaction of cultures: LIM, SARAH

· Many Europeans supported imperialism and also nationalism

· A lot of them thought that it was their duty to take over other parts of the world because they were the better race and better civilization

· Christian missionaries when to places like Africa and Asia. They were against imperialism

· French imperialists invoked the mission civilisatrice (“civilizing mission”) which was the idea that taking over places in Africa and Asia would benefit those places because they were bringing them civilization

· “White man’s burden”: the duty of European people to bring order and enlightenment to distant lands

· Industrialization allowed the production of massive quantities of advanced weapons and tools, and new technological innovations such as those of transportation, communication, and war

• Steamboats, steamships with guns, railroads, canals. Steamships were powerful and allowed for deeper penetration of subject lands; canals allowed rapid travel; and railroads allowed for easier maintenance of conquered lands

§ The Suez Canal and Panama Canal two of the most important, beneficial canals

• Muzzle-loading muskets, breech-loading firearms with rifled bores (more reliable than muskets), rifled machine guns, the Maxim gun (light weapon that fired 11 bullets/second). These weapons helped with maintenance of subject lands

• Telegraph and steamships allowed for quicker communication, benefiting economics and politics

· Scientific racism was an ideology that certain theorists like Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau took to. They divided the entire human race into four main racial groups, and each had its own group of characteristics.

· English philosopher Herbert Spencer said that successful races competed better in the natural world and evolved to higher states than other, less “fit” people.

· Popular racism was more the idea of racism without scientific justification

· Imperialism had economic, political, and cultural motives:

• People wanted to get their hands on the resources that they needed that were abundant in other places

• More land meant more resources, and more subject peoples, which meant more power. Thus the political motives of imperialism.

• Europeans thought they were responsible for bringing enlightenment to other distant peoples

· Many rebellions were fueled by traditional religious beliefs or opposition against imperialism

State-building, expansion and conflict: LINFIELD, ELIZABETH

· Age of modern imperialism

· European imperial powers were able to extend their control so efficiently due to new technologies such as steamships, railroads, canals, machine guns and rifles, telegraphs, and submarine cables.

· Direct rule is the process of governing an acquired territory by placing leaders from the motherland in said territory to oversee government procedures and cultural policies.

· Indirect rule is the process of governing an acquired territory through native people that had to correspond with leaders of the motherland.

· The British established indirect imperial rule in India through the East India Company, and enforced their rule with a small British army and a large number of sepoys (Indian troops).

· The Sepoy Mutiny (1857), sparked by cultural and religious disrespect by the British, initiated direct rule by the British in India. Indians served in low-level bureaucratic positions, but British officials controlled all domestic and foreign policy in India.

· French Indochina consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos.

· The British controlled Burma, the Malay states, and northern Borneo.

· The Scramble for Africa was a movement driven by the imperial powers of Europe as to who could control more land in Africa.

· In 1908 Belgium took control of Congo, known thereafter as Belgian Congo.

· The British takeover of the Cape during the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) sparked even more interest of expansion into south Africa.

· The Republic of Natal (annexed by the British in 1843), the Orange Free states in 1854, and the South African Republic (Transvaal territories) in 1860 were all independent republics.

· When the Boers (Dutch word for “farmer”) later discovered diamonds and gold in the Transvaal, the British quickly followed, fighting a series of wars for the rights of the resources (Boer War 1899-1902).

· After years of bloody battles, the British reigned supreme, and all of South Africa was annexed as part of the ever-expanding British Empire.

· The Afrikaners conceded defeat in 1902, and by 1910, the British government had reconstituted the four former colonies as provinces in the Union of South Africa, a largely autonomous British dominion.

· The Berlin Conference (or the Berlin West Africa Conference) was a gathering of European imperial powers to devise the ground rules for colonization of Africa. Not one African was present at this conference.

· By 1900, European colonies embraced all of Africa except for Ethiopia and Liberia.

· In 1788 a British fleet with about one thousand settlers, most of them convicted criminals, arrived at Sydney harbor and established the colony of New South Wales (Australia).

· Representatives of the British government encouraged Maori leaders in 1840 to sign the Treaty of Waitangi which presumably placed New Zealand under British protection.

· The Hawaiian kingdom survived until 1893, when a group of planets and businesspeople overthrew the last monarch, Queen Lili`uokalani, and invited the United States to annex the islands.

· In the Spanish-Cuban-American War, the United States acquired Guam and the Philippines, and occupied Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Haiti in the early 20^th century.

· After the Japanese entered the Meiji Restoration Period, their industrial revolution allowed them to advance in the expansionist world.

· Their wins in the Sino-Japanese War against China (acquiring Korea), and in the Russo-Japanese War against Russia (acquiring the Liaodong peninsula, southern Manchuria, and the southern half of Sakhalin island), allowed Japan to enter the footrace of colonial and imperial landholdings.

· Ram Mohan Roy supported some British colonial policies, such as the campaign to end the practice of sati, and he worked with Christian social reformers to improve the status of women by providing them with an education and property rights.

· The Indian National Congress was a group of educated Indians that communicated their views on public affairs to colonial officials.

· In 1906 the congress joined forces with the All-India Muslim League, the most prominent organization working to advance the political and social interests of Muslims.

· A few zealous nationalists turned to violence and sought to undermine British rule by bombing government buildings and assassinating colonial officials.

· Indian nationalism was a powerful movement that would bring independence from colonial rule in 1947.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: LIOW, ALEX

· Imperialism had a large influence on the economy of many European states because overseas colonies could serve as reliable sources of raw materials not available in Europe that came into demand because of industrialization.

· the cost of trade went down and trade also moved much faster because new steamships could move farther upriver and the creation of canals also helped quicken the pace of trade.

· The British set up many colonies in India because they owned the English East India Company

· When the British took direct imperial rule in India, British officials cleared forests, restructured landholdings, and

· One example of how British colonies brought wealth to England is the port of Singapore that controlled the strait of Melaka.

· British colonies were able to control the sea lanes linking the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea.

· British colonies also extended to southeast Asia and French established colonies in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos.

· AFRICA

· Europeans also tried to set up many colonies in Africa because a lively commerce developed around the exchange of African gold, ivory, and palm oil.

· European presence also grew at the southern tip of the African continent, where the Dutch East India Company had established Cape town.

· other European migrants known as Boers moved into regions close to Cape Town and they used slaves to work their lands.

· voortrekkers created several individual republics like the Republic of Natal, the Orange Free State, and the South African Republic.

· Britain’s lenient attitude toward these republics took a drastic turn when diamonds and gold were discovered in Afrikaner-populated territories.

· South African War was started y the English in order for them to regain control of the Afrikaner-populated territories.

· European powers established settler colonies and dominant political institutions in Australia and New Zealand. They also sought commercial opportunities and reliable bases fro the operations in the pacific islands. Europeans first visited the islands in the Pacific because they hunted whales.

· the islands of Hawaii and Fiji became the sites of profitable sugarcane plantations

· Monroe doctrine had an economic motive because it justified for later US intervention and the US sought to establish free trade in the Americas.

· United States built a canal across central America to facilitate communication and transportation between the Atlantic and pacific oceans.

· The “Roosevelt Corollary” exerted the US right to intervene in the domestic affairs of nations within the western hemisphere if they demonstrated an inability to maintain the security deemed necessary to protect US investments.

· colonial administrators reorganized subject societies so they would become efficient suppliers of timber, rubber, petroleum, gold, silver, diamonds, cotton, tea, coffee, cacao, and other products.

· Advantages of this trade went to the colonial power whose policies encouraged their subject lands to be providers of raw materials for processing in industrialized societies.

· Colonial rule transformed the production of crops and commodities in India by changing the cotton industry into a producer of cotton for export.

· Also allowed the import of inexpensive British textiles, which undermined Indian cotton production

· Colonial rule also sometimes changed the landscape and social order of subject lands by the introduction of new crops.

· Tea became available to people in all classes because Ceylon became a mass producer of tea.

· large numbers of European migrants mostly became free cultivators or herders but sometimes found employment as skilled workers in mines or fledgling industries.

· Settler colonies also attracted many indentured laborers.

· Indentured laborers became very common after the institution of slavery was abolished.

· Chinese laborers went to sugar plantations all over island of the Pacific.

· French and British colonial officials also sent Indian laborers to sugar plantations.

Development and transformation of social structures: LOPEZ, MAYA

· very bad time for non-Europeans

· scientific racism attempted to justify European dominance

· "white man's burden"; European and euro-American duty to "civilize" foreign lands

· imperialism refers to European dominance over other lands

· Europeans had more technologically advanced weaponry; made them a powerful force

· men had control

· people were either really rich or really poor; revolts broke out

· Africa was extremely poor compared to Europe

· made Africa easier to conquer

· Africans had next to no power

· British officers made Sepoys used bullets lined with animal fat; soldiers had to tear off paper with teeth

· Muslims: pigs are foul

· Hindus: cows are sacred

· led to mutiny; Indians lost

· Scramble for Africa: Europeans wanted it!

· Berlin west African conference: no Africans were invited or present

· Africa split amongst Europeans

· Europeans used Australia as a jail for convicts

· overthrew queen Liliuokalani of Hawai’i

1914 to present

The Great War: The World in Upheaval—Chapter 34

Interaction between humans and the environment: LUGO, ALYSSA

· The spread of disease effected the political and economical regions of World War 1.

· During the Great War, many people began to get lice.

· By early December of the Great War, 450,000 people had died of the diseases spread.

· The Great War was the first to experience the Pandemic Flu (also known as the Spanish Flu). Over 1.6 billion died of the disease.

· The flu affected many people, civilians and military services, who then later died.

Migrations

· Migrations during WW1 increased during 1910 to the early 1920’s.

· 300,000 to 1,000,000 were migrated Africa-Americas who traveled north to find jobs, in plantations and factories.

· Production was boosted due to the many workers they had during the migration.

Patterns of settlement

· Slavic people: Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

· Triple Alliance (Central Powers): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

· Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia.

Technology

· Powerful navies = control of the seas in times of war.

· Germany builds many large battleships called dreadnoughts

· British determination to retain naval superiority, builds their own flotilla of dreadnoughts.

· Barbed wire for "no-man's land"

· Poisonous gas, mustard gas, tanks, airplanes, aerial reconnaissance, gas masks.

Development and interaction of cultures: MARTINEZ, EDGAR

· French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic conquests spread nationalism throughout most of Europe

· Self-determination was the idea that people with the same ethnic origins, language, and political ideals had the right to form sovereign states

· Peacemakers such as Woodrow Wilson believed that self-determination was the key to international peace and cooperation

· Pan Slavism was a movement that stressed the ethnic and cultural kinship of the Slav peoples of eastern and east central Europe and that sought to unite those people politically

· British government constructed super battleships known as dreadnoughts to discourage Germans from naval buildup. Instead, the Germans end up building their own ships in response.

· Barbed wire was very effective in preventing soldiers to advance to a different territory

· Machine guns were able to shoot rapid and continuous bullets

· Poisonous gas (e.g. mustard gas) brought slow and painful deaths by rotting bodies from the inside and out

· Tanks used to break down trenches and airplanes used for reconnaissance

· Submarines used by the Germans against Allied shipping

· Believed that God was on their side during war:

o Germans- Gott mit uns ("God is with us")

o Russians- "God and Tsar"

o British- "For God, King, and Country."

· The League divided the mandates into three classes based on the presumed development of their populations in the direction of suitability for self-government.

· League of Nations was created to bring and maintain world peace

State-building, expansion and conflict: MILLER, MEGANNE

· Underlying causes for war: national rivalries- competition between Britian and Germany; nationalist aspirations- self determination ( right to form states based on ethnicity, language, and/or political ideals)

· Triple entente- made up of Russia, England, and France.

· Triple Alliance- Germany, Austria- Hungary, and Italy.

· Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria Hungary visits Sarajevo in 1914. While passing through the streets there with his family a Serbian nationalist (Gavrilo Princip) shoots him and his wife.

· This leads to Austria Hungary declaring war on Serbia. Russia allied with Serbia and then declared war on Austria- Hungary, Due to the Alliances France, Italy, Germany, and Britain were forced to join

· Germany implemented schlieffen plan and stormed through Belgium towards France. Britain had to join the battle to protect France. Italy declared itself neutral, Ottoman empire, Germany and Austria Hungary formed central powers.

· Allied powers- England, France, Russia, and Italy (who switched sides at the last minute)

· Central powers- Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.

· World war one was faught on two fronts: the western front and the eastern front

· Western front: this front was between France and Germany, passing through Belgium. French and British fought against Germans and was joined by Americans in 1917.

· Americans had declared itself neutral however, after German Submarines killed Americans aboard a ship and once the US intercepted the Zimmermann telegram, the president wasn’t happy and decided to extract revenge

· The war finished quickly because both sides were fighting in trenches and due to new military technology. The war ended in 1918 with Germany not being able to match the combined forces of America, France, and Britain.

· Eastern Front: On this front Germany and Austria- Hungary fought Russia along a fluid battle line. The Central powers overran Serbia, Albania, and Romania but, the Russians took offense in Prussia. In 1915 the German and Austrian forces drove the Russian armies back eastward across pOland, and eventually back into Russia’s borders.

· After the battle in the Eastern front and Russia’s loss the lack of confidence in the tsar led to disunity leading to a group called the Bolsheviks (these people took over the government and assassinated the tsar. Russia withrew from the war in 1917.

· Germany now moved more of their soldiers to the eastern Front but, this didn’t change anything so, stalemate was broken with the armistice in November 1918.

· Signed in 1919, the treaty of Versailles brought an official end to world war one. This treaty required Germany to pay war reparations, release territory, and shrink its military (the victors were blaming the war on Germany)

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: MIRBLOUK, KASRA

Agricultural and Pastoral Production:

· Women- management of husbands farm when the husbands were away at war.

Trade and Commerce:

· US coped with thousands of failed businesses, and unemployment reached 15%.

· US Trades and becomes dependent on the trade of weapons to allies and allows for a strong recovery in their economy( i.e. trade with Britain)

· Allies took out huge loans with the US, thus fathering their success in their economy.

Labor Systems:

· Military as new prioritized job.

· Subsidized private companies to the government, and imposed a severe discipline on the labor processes, including a high demand for raw materials and manufactured goods.

· Instituted tight control over economic life: longer work hours, established wages, price controls, and restricted the movement of workers.

· Unemployment in the economies of all these countries involved in the world disappeared, due to high demand for support for the troops that the government scavenged to pick out.

· Due to the men being taken to the battle field, women filled the void of the workplace.

· Women preformed jobs such as police, postal workers, nurses, physicians, and communication clerks and sometime took over their mens businesses.

· (Russia) Petrograd soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies-held great power due to the great control of factories in the military.

Industrialization:

· government placed planning boards changed whole industries, set promotion quotas, and determined what would be produced and consumed.

· Women and sometimes children supplied major duty for the country by producing gun shells, and explosives; weapons.

· US Produces weapons and supplies for allies.

Capitalism and socialism:

· Home front- outlined the importance of how the war would outcome depending on how each nation mobilized its economy and how they integrated their citizens in order to support the war.

· Abandoned the Capitalistic society, by the government implementing new rules and regulations

· Lenin called for a well-organized and hugely disciplined party of socialist workers; new socialist party in Russia

Development and transformation of social structures: MONARCH, MIRANDA

Gender Roles

· During the Great War, women took up the work that was abandoned by recruits. As men marched off to war, women marched off to work.

· A combination of patriotism and high wages drew women into formerly “male” jobs.

· Some women took over the management of farms and businesses left by their husbands, who went off to fight. Others found jobs as postal workers and police officers.

· Woman, during the war, made shells in factories. This job was very dangerous and many women died in explosions.

Family and kinship

· Families were changing due to men going to war and women having to take over work. In many cases children were forced to work as well.

· Slavic nationalism: stressed kinship of all Slavic peoples.

· Since the war took place on the home front, total war was engaged. This led to people really wanting to get involved in the war to support their nation.

Racial and ethnic constructions

· Terrorist group known as the black hand was dedicated to the unification of all southern Slavs to form a greater Surbia.

· Germany, Russia, and Britain all had the common belief that god was on their side. This strengthened the bonds within each nation.

Social and economic classes

· During the first two years of war the U.S. economy coped with a severe business recession that saw thousands of businesses fail and unemployment reach 15%.

· Economic relationship between Europe and United States was reversed; United States was now the creditor.

· The Great War caused an Economic Crisis including inflation, debt, loss of overseas investments, foreign markets.

Age of Anxiety—Chapter 35

Interaction between humans and the environment: MORENO, NATALIE

No completed work

Development and interaction of cultures: MUMTAZ, SHAJEEAH

Religions:

· Christian theologian Karl Barth (1886-1968) published Epistle to the Romans. Attacked Christian theology of progress: European thought God’s purpose was limitless improvement.

· Augustinian, Lutheran, and Calvinist idea of sin: Christians refuse to accept that human society was a realization of God’s purpose.

Belief Systems, Philosophies, and Ideologies:

· After WWI, enthusiastic young artists and intellectuals became disillusioned: meaningless death and suffering.

· Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) published The Decline of the West (1918-1922). Proposed that all societies have a life cycle of growth and decay: European society was in its final stage of existence. Irreversible decline because of imperialism and warfare.

· Widespread support in European of idea that people should select leaders of their government.

· Right to vote: universal male suffrage, later granted to women.

· Viewed democracy as having no good values and a product of decay, corrupt.

Science and Technology:

· Destroyed belief in progress: scientists made weapons, poisonous gas, etc.: couldn’t lead humanity.

· Revolution in physics: Albert Einstein.

· Albert Einstein (1879-1955): theory of special relativity, space and time are no longer absolutes but vary with observer.

· Werner Heinsenberg (1901-1976): “uncertainty principle.” Scientists cannot observe behavior of electrons because they interfere with them, can only apply probability.

· From uncertainty principle: observer always part of the process under observation.

· Sigmund Freud (1859-1939): psychoanalytic theory. Dreams, sexual drives, and fantasies are the most important source of repression. Also analyzed literature, religion, politics, and other human endeavors from dreams.

Arts and Architecture:

· Purpose of painting/art is not to reproduce but to create.

· Little sense to paint with paint and brush when you can take pictures with a camera.

· Les fauves, “wild beasts,” expressionists, abstractionists, etc. agreed to “abolish the sovereignty of appearance.”

· Art expresses feelings, emotions, etc.

· Europeans influenced by Japanese art.

· Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) went to central America and Tahiti to make art: these people had a wonder that “civilized” people didn’t.

· Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) uses cubism, influenced by African art.

· Architecture trends increased with the Bauhaus, brought together architects, designers, and painters. Directed by Walter Gropius.

· Building designs were functional, between engineering and art: follow function.

· Ludwig Mies von der Rohe, second director: glass-box skyscrapers.

· New style embraced: concrete buildings made by Swiss-French Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret).

State-building, expansion and conflict: NAMGOONG, SEOL

· The Great War discredited the establishment of political institutions

Post War Pessimism:

· Democratic ideals were destroyed by the Great War; the idea that people should have a voice in selecting the leaders of their gov. received support from European societies.

· Led to an unprecedented degree of political participation

· Many people still idealized elite rule, since they viewed democracy as lacking positive values. Democracy is seen as a decaying political system because the Europeans associate it with corrupt and ineffective politics.

Experimentation on Art and Architecture:

· Les fauves (wild beasts)-artists agreed on a program to “abolish sovereignty of appearance”

· Paul Gauguin-revolted against rational society and fled to central America and Haiti

Great Depression

· After WWI, the government of Austria and Germany relied on U.S loans and investment capital for payments to France and England; French and English govs. depend on this payment to pay off loans taken out in the U.S during the Great War

· In 1928, U.S lenders and investors withdraw their capital from Europe, putting a strain on the financial system

· Getulio Dornelles Vargas Brazil-turned Brazil into an Estado Novo (new state)

· He ruled with military support but without support from elites; He and his gov. embarked on a program of industrialization that created new enterprises

· His regime implemented protectionist policies that shield domestic production from foreign competition

· Colonies in Africa had no choice to follow the policies of their masters

Despair and Government Action

· Gov. reduce female employment

· 1931 British royal commission on unemployment insurance

Communism in Russia

· Bolshevik Party vs. Russian Communist Party = civil war from 1918 to 1920.

German National Socialism

· Nazi Party-attempted to overthrow democratic Weimar Republic, later became successful

· Loss of faith in democracy, electorate radicalized

· Goal of Jewish migration

India’s Conquest for Independence

· India National Congress-effective instrument of Indian nationalism

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: NEIL, ZOE

· The Great Depression: Extremely weakened the global economy.

· Corrupt financial relationships: Germany and Austria borrowed money from United States,

· used it to pay reparations to Allies, who used the money to pay war debt to United State

· 1928 U.S. lenders withdrew capital from Europe which strained the financial system

· Industrial innovations reduced demand for raw materials: rubber, coal, cotton

· Postwar agriculture depressed in Europe, United States, Canada, Argentina, and Australia

· The crash of 1929

· U.S. economic boom prompted many to speculate, invest beyond what they should

· Black Thursday (24 October 1929): stock prices dropped, investors lost life savings

· Lenders called in loans which forced investors to keep selling

· Economic contraction in U.S. economy and the world

· Overproduction and reduced consumer demand resulted in widespread business failure and unemployment

· By 1932 U.S. industrial production and national income dropped by half

· Germany and Japan unable to sell manufactured goods to purchase fuel and food

· By 1932, Germany: 35 percent unemployment, 50 percent decrease in industrial production

· European industrial states and Japan unable to sell to United States because of tariffs

· Primary producing economies especially vulnerable

· Export prices declined sharply after 1929: sugar, coffee, beef, tin, nitrates, and so on

· Latin American states enacted import tariffs that actually helped domestic industry

· Brazil under dictator Betulio Dornelles Vargas built up steel and iron production

· Impact on colonial Africa varied: exports hurt, but not local markets

· China not integrated into world economy, less affected

· Philippines was a U.S. colony; its sugar production protected by the United States

· Economic nationalism favored over international cooperation

· High tariffs, import quotas, and prohibitions to promote economic self-sufficiency

· U.S. trade restrictions provoked retaliation by other nations

· International trade dropped 66 percent between 1929 and 1932

· Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP), 1921:

· Reversed war communism, restored market economy

· Returned small-scale industries to private ownership

· Allowed peasants to sell their surplus at free market

· Programs of electrification and technical schools were carried out

· First Five-Year Plan, 1928-1932, replaced Lenin's NEP:

· Set production quotas, central state planning of entire economy

· Emphasized heavy industry at expense of consumer goods

· Collectivization of agriculture:

· States seized private farms, created large collective farms-Believed to be more productive, to feed industrial workers.

· Collectivization strongly resisted by peasants, especially the wealthier “kulaks”

· Fascism: new political ideology of 1920s:

· Fascism hostile to liberal democracies and to socialism and communism

· Sought subordination of individuals to the service of state

· Emphasized an extreme form of nationalism, often expressed as racism

· Benito Mussolini, founder of Italian fascism, 1919

· Armed fascist squads called Blackshirts terrorized socialists

· After march on Rome, Mussolini invited by king to be prime minister

· All other political parties banned, Italy became a one-party dictatorship

· Supported by business, the party crushed labor unions, prohibited strikes

· Not aggressively anti-Semitic until after alliance with Hitler in 1938

· Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) Was the founder of Germany’s national socialism who hated Jews and Marxists

· 1921, joined obscure group, National Socialist German Workers Party

· 1923: attempt to take over Weimar Republic failed; Hitler jailed

· Released in 1924, he organized party for a legal takeover, through elections

· National socialism enjoyed broad appeal, especially from lower-middle class

· Public lost faith in democracy: associated with defeat, depression, inflation

· 1930-1932, Nazi party became the largest in parliament

· 1932, President Hindenburg offered Hitler the chancellorship

· Rapid consolidation of power, 1933-1935

· Nazis created one-party dictatorship; outlawed all other political parties

· Took over judiciary, civil service, military. Nazi ideology emphasized purity of race

· Cult of motherhood: propaganda campaign to increase births was unsuccessful

· Nazi eugenics: deliberate policies to improve the quality of the German "race"

· State-sponsored euthanasia of physically and mentally handicapped

Development and transformation of social structures: ORELLANA, CHELSIE

Gender Roles and Relations

· Nazis campaigned to increase birthrates of “racially valuable” people

· they encouraged this by:

· special child allowances

· marriage loans (marriage was encouraged)

· no divorce

· procreation for young people

· abortion outlawed

· closed birth control centers / restricted birth control devices

· making it hard to obtain family planning information

· Women who had a certain amount of children were rewarded and received the Honor Cross of the German Mother annually on August 12 (the birthday of Hitler's mother). By 1939, 3 million women had received this award (“rabbit decoration”).

o 4 children or more; bronze

o 6 children or more; silver

o 8 children or more; gold

· ultimately this system failed

Racial and Ethnic Construction

· The leaders of the Third Reich moved towards a race-based national community.

· The Nazi regime put racist ideology into practice:

· racial superiority

· racial purity

· Claimed that leaving no room for the racially “inferior” or “biological outsiders”, would improve both the quantity and “quality” of the German “race”.

· Because of this obsession with “quality” in people, the Germans began a sterilization program in 1933 for men and women who were identified with having “hereditary determined” sickness.

· Between 1934 and 1939 more than 30,000 people had been sterilized

· abortion for the “hereditary ill” and “racial aliens” was encouraged

· “racial health” turned into a state-sponsored euthanasia (“mercy killing”)

Social and Economic Classes

· The Great Depression not only caused marriage, child bearing, and divorce to decline and suicide rates to increase, but it magnified the social and economic divisions and class hatreds.

· The people who were most dramatically affected were the farmers and workers. these people grew to hate the wealthier classes

· although the wealthier classes were still able to enjoy a comfortable lifestyle, they despised their reduced incomes

· millions of people struggled to find food, clothing, and shelter

· The classical economic thought that capitalism was a self-correcting system failed and even worsened these situations.

Nationalism and Political Identities—Chapter 36

Interaction between humans and the environment: PAKASRI, EARTH

· The Red Army began the legendary Long March, 1000 kilometers (6,215 miles), difficult terrain and fight for survival against hunger and disease.

· As a signatory to several Washington Conference treaties in 1922, Japan agreed to limit naval development, pledged to evacuate Shandong, China.

· Japan profited from selling munitions and other goods to the Allies.

· Japanese troops used explosives to blow up several feet of rail on the Japanese-built South Manchuria Railway (The Mukden Incident), accused the Chinese, pretext for the Japanese vs. Chinese troops.

· 1 million+ African soldiers participated in the military campaigns, which they first witness the spectacle of white people fighting on another.

· In the French colonies, military services became compulsory for all (Africans)males between the ages of 20-28, end of war 480,000 served in the French army.

· 1915 a compulsory mad all (African)men aged 18-25 liable for military services.

· Belgians: 500,000+ porters.

· New colonial economy came in forms of port facilities, roads, railways, and telegraph wires.

· Transportation and communication facilitated rule and linked agricultural or mineral wealth of a colony to the outside world.

· Extensive white settlements: Kenya, Rhodesia, and South Africa, settler agriculture was most prominent.

· The United States wanted to cultivate Latin American markets for its exports.

· Widespread Mexican migration to the United States during and after the Great War.

· Mexican men, women, and children entered by the thousands to engage in agricultural and industrial work.

· U.S. citizens considered Mexicans "cheap Mexican labor".

Development and interaction of cultures: PARKER, KAREN

Religions

· Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was Hindu, yet his renouncements of material possession, dressing in the garb of a peasant, and becoming a vegetarian are Jainist principals as well.

Belief systems, philosophies, and ideologies

· Under Soviet advisors who stressed democratic centralism, centralizing party control by a highly disciplined group of professional revolutionaries (Hmm… Stressing educational elites… A little Confucian, no?), the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) were repaired.

· Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi – ahimsa, the moral philosophy of tolerance and nonviolence; satyagraha (“truth and firmness”), the technique of passive resistance.

· Mao Zedong – the former teacher and librarian who believed a Marxist-inspired social revolution was the cure for China’s problems.

· Maoism - an ideology based in the conviction that peasants rather than urban proletarians were the foundation for a successful revolution.

· Chinese communists believed in divorce, opposed arranged marriages, and campaigned against footbinding.

· Sun Yatsen – author of the Three Principles of the People, which called for the elimination of special privileges for foreigners, national reunification, economic development, and a democratic republican government based on universal suffrage.

· Blacks form the United States and Afro-Caribbean intellectuals thought of themselves as members of a single race, and who promoted the unification of all people of African descent into a single African state. Other nationalists tried to find and African identity through geography, leading to defining race through existing colonial states in Africa.

· The followers of the Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (Popular American Revolutionary Alliance/APRA) known as Apristas, advocated indigenous rights and anti-imperialism after the creation of the Peruvian Communist Party.

Science and technology

· The construction of a vast railway network threatened British rule in India by connecting the peoples in each region together to make national unity grow.

· During the early twentieth century, the new colonial African economy first became visible though port facilities, roads, railways, and telegraphs wires, facilitating European conquest and linking the agricultural or mineral wealth of a colony to the outside word.

The arts and architecture

· Diego Rivera – celebrated indigenous Mexican art and pre-Columbian folk traditions. He began a project of twenty-one paintings on United States history entitled Portrait of America. One of the paintings, Imperialism, critiqued U.S. neocolonialism in Latin America.

· Carmen Miranda – Portuguese singing and dancing star born in Brazil used to promote better relations between Latin America and the U.S. for Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy. (Chiquita Banana was an advertising icon used to promote the United Fruit Company. She was a replica and fruit of Carmen Miranda.)

State-building, expansion and conflict: PAYDAR, CALEB

Political Structures and Forms of Governance

· India was ruled by the Indian National Congress (formed in 1885), controlled by an elitist, anglicized group of males. The Muslim league (formed in 1906) was made up of a complete Muslim Indian group. Both were supported by Britain and used to advance Indian and Muslim interests. Mohandas Gandhi transforms the Congress into an institution which led a movement for self governance which was granted by Britain by the Government of India Act (1937).

· China was ruled by Qing Emperor until 1911. Chinese Republic is declared in 1912 after revolution. The government ran services in Beijing, but Warlords controlled regions and provinces. Foreign authority granted in unequal treaties kept provinces from sovereignty. Nationalist People’s Party (Guomindang) reorganizes central government in Beijing and Nanjing and kicks Chinese Communist Party (CCP) out.

· Japan was ruled by Prime Minister with a house of nobles and elected lower house. Conservative and liberal political parties.

· Africa was ruled by European Colonies.

· Latin America was run by sovereign states with governments with liberal and conservative ideals created by revolution and colonial rule.

Empires

· British Empire ruled India until 1937.

· European colonies in Africa controlled by France, Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

· The United States have control over Latin America due to resources and location.

· China is governed by foreigners from unequal treaties.

· Japan encroaches in China as an effort to expand.

Nations and Nationalism

· India’s nationalism was led by Mohandas Gandhi. Transformation of anglicized Congress into one that supported the people’s religious, social and traditional views. Speaking vernacular led a nationalist movement that eventually gave India sovereignty. Muslims and Hindus have differences so Pakistan is created for Muslim Indians.

· China’s nationalism is started due to unequal treaties and extensive Japanese interference in domestic affairs. Soviet Union’s anti-imperial views create inspirations that help CCP and Guomindang lead ideology reform for communism and national reunification and expulsion of foreigners. Leads to government ruled by Guomindang after expulsion of CCP

· Japan didn’t have large nationalist movements.

· African nationalism drew inspiration from African elites who studied European ideologies as well as African Americans and Afro-Caribbean intellectuals who viewed themselves as one race. These people created nationalism on notions that Africans belong to one race, traditional African languages and religions tie Africans together as well as teaching Black pride. After World War II, these ideas create independence movements.

· Latin America, in the midst of being dominated by the US, starts artistic nationalism which depicts history without censorship. Radical Political Parties in Latin and South America deal with better treatment of citizens in efforts to gain support of the populous.

Revolts and Revolution

· India’s nationalist movement is meant to be peaceful; however, Britain uses force to stop it which causes armed revolt in some cases.

· Revolution after the emperor steps down which leads to Republic and Warlord rule. After the Guomindang and CCP have an alliance, leader of Guomindang turns on the CCP and causes civil war which leads to Guomindang rule.

· Japan has policy revolution to expand, however they are forced to stop expansion.

· Africans revolt against colonial rule during the Great War due to lack of supervision, however, they don’t achieve independence.

· Latin and South America have radical political parties which try to reform society. The Popular American Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) advocated indigenous rights, radical but noncommunist alternatives and anti-imperial thoughts for Peru. This was mostly against the US but sought to join the lower and middle classes to form a capitalist economy.

Regional, Transregional and Global Structures and Organizations

· Africa has “new elite class” which is made up of Africans that have European education.

· Japan is made up of a government with conservative and liberal parties.

· Latin and South America have radical parties immerge after the US becomes an international power that threatens these societies.

· Communist Parties immerge to evoke nationalism and combat foreign power.

· The League of Nations was created to prevent future global conflicts. The League forces Japan to stop expanding into Chinese and Manchurian territory.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: PLEHN, CONNOR

No completed work

Development and transformation of social structures: PREIMESBERGER, CHRISTINE

Gender Rules and Family Relations

· China: As China became more Communist in nature, arranged marriages and foot-binding became frowned upon. Women are allowed to pursue an education just like men.

Family and Kinship

· Patriarchs still ran the family in most countries, but women had more freedom to get jobs or divorce their husbands.

· People could chose who they marry instead of being placed in an arranged marriage.

Racial and Ethnic Constructions

· India: The tension between the Hindus and the Muslims. The Great Depression increases these problems because the Muslims were tenant farmers to the Hindus. The Muslims got less pay and they felt that they were being exploited. The Muslims opted for their own land, Pakistan.

· India: Native Indians were taught to abide by European standards and tradition but were still treated as second-class citizens. This caused nationalist groups to form which eventually caused the British government to give the native Indians more political power.

· Africans who adopted European education and culture were generally part of the educated upper class, while everyone basically served as the labor force.

· Africa: Colonists sent Africans to fight on African soil and defend it against the “white man” or the invading army.

· Educated Africans became more nationalist and advocated a free Africa. This sense of nationalism spread among blacks in other countries as well.

· Mexican immigrants made up most of the low-wage labor force in the United States.

Social and Economic Classes

· Africa: The emergence of an educated upper-class: civil servants, doctors, and lawyers who went to a university. Under that class were the teachers, clerks, and interpreters ho had only a primary or secondary level education. Most Africans served as the main labor force for farms, factories, etc.

· India: Caste system was still in effect. Mohandas K. Gandhi and other activists tried to eradicate the unfair system.

· India: Muslims made up most of the tenant farming populations and Hindus made up the landowners populations.

New Conflagrations: World War II---Chapter 37

Interaction between humans and the environment: RAMOS, JOSE

Demography and Disease

· The overall population of the world at the cusp of WWII was at around 2 billion people, and at the end of the war almost 60 million lives had been lost

· The majority of deaths occurred as a result of civilian casualties; Military deaths where around 20 million, while civilian deaths totaled 40 million

· European Jews large percent of these deaths, 6 million Jews killed during the Holocaust.

· A number of these victims died as a result of disease and malnutrition, while others suffered death by gassing and other forms of torture

Migrations

· As a result of anti-Semitism, millions of European-Jews began to migrate from countries threatened by German forces

· Emigration also occurred by the millions from regions all over Europe; the occupation of Axis convinced civilians to move to regions where they could find refuge

· German and Japanese forces set up strategic bases within newly conquered territories in order to place surprise attacks on unsuspecting countries; over 3.6 million German troops were moved to countries borderline of the Soviet Union in order to launch a surprise attack on the Russians.

Patterns of Settlement

· Typically ideal locations of settlement for civilians where ones far away from the firefights of the war, and regions that faced occupation of enemy forces

· Within Asia, European forces and influence had been pushed out by the Japanese as an attempt to make “Asia for Asians”. Countries include French Indochina, British Malaya, the Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island

Technology

· A rapid increase in the race for new arms and weaponry. Overseas Germany had brought about the invention of “U-Boats”, which were submarines equipped to destroy enemy carriers and battleships undetected

· “Blitzkrieg” (Lightning War), emphasis on improvements of aerial weaponry to bring about devastation on unsuspecting enemies

· Napalm firebombs launched from low-altitude airplanes introduced within Allied forces, and Japanese forces used Kamikazes to great effect on Allied ships. Atomic Bomb revolutionary weapon that brought about 200,000 civilian deaths

Development and interaction of cultures: ROBINSON, ZACHARY

· Science and Technology:

o Military Technology increased dramatically, much like World War I

o Large use of new, stronger, more powerful planes

o Submarines

o A lot of new bombing technology - atomic bomb for example

· Very little religious, philosophical, or ideological ideas were being created during this time, also was not a time with a lot of new art or architecture.

· Main focus of societal development - war technology for WWII

State-building, expansion and conflict: RODGERS, ANDREW

Conflicts and Expansion

· Stalin causes Soviet Union to become a totalitarian dictatorship under the communist flag

· Great Depression in USA and Germany’s outstanding debts cripple world powers

· Fascism becomes popular in places such as Italy under Mussolini

· Adolf Hitler comes to power, wants to remake Germany under the Third Reich

· Germany, under Hitler, begins to remilitarize despite the Treaty of Versailles. It then withdraws from the League of Nations

· Hitler begins to expand into Eastern Europe

· Italy begins to slowly creep northward

· Nazi-Soviet Pact is signed, Germany invades Poland. Britain and France declare war on the Nazis.

· Japan invades China (war crimes, incl. Rape of Nanjing)

· Churchill becomes Prime Minister of Britain

· France surrenders within a year

· Axis Powers: Italy, Japan, Germany

· Allied Powers: USA, USSR, Great Britain

· Hydrogen Bomb is developed

· D-Day: Germany is invaded, Hitler commits suicide. Germany surrenders

· Japan continues to wage war in Pacific until Hydrogen bomb is dropped on Hiroshima, then Nagasaki. Japan surrenders: war ends

Forms of Government

· Fascism – This is similar to totalitarianism. Fascist rulers are destructively conservative and rely almost exclusively on the traditional, nationalistic ways of doing things. Nationalism is based upon racism. Example: Italy under Mussolini

· Communist Totalitarianism – Leader has total control, government strangles people. Extremely liberal in that traditional structure is destroyed. All power is in hands of militaristic leader with total control. Example: USSR under Josef Stalin

· Nazi Party (aka Third Reich) – Nationalist Socialist party. Relies on nationalism based on racial superiority. Used Social Darwinism to fatal extremes. A fascist party under Hitler

· Colonialism Ends, Nationalistic Revolts are the Cause

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: RUBIN, DANIELLE

No completed work

Development and transformation of social structures: SCHULBERG, LAURA

Gender roles and relations

· "It's A Woman's War Too!"

· Many woman throughout Britain and the U.S. joined armed forces

· They excelled in resistance-less suspect in supplying security and less subject to searches

· Though their lives changed dramatically due to war-temporary conditions

· While they could, many woman joined the military

· For Japanese soldiers, "comfort woman" where there in the war zones to care for soldiers

Family and kinship

· Puppet governments were installed by Japanese

· After the war, woman were expected to return home-patriarchal families continue

· Forced to act as heads of households as husbands were missing ^(patriarchal)

· Mass rape of woman took place in Nanjing

· Comfort woman for Japanese soldiers hid their past/were shunned by their families

Racial and ethnic constructions

· Chinese resisted Japanese and attempted to unite against them

· Japan allied themselves with Germany and Italy

· Holocaust -Jews were subjected to great hate from Hitler

o "final solution"-Nazi leaderships attempt to murder every living Jew living in Europe

o came up with efficient ways of executing Jews-gas chambers

· Social and economic classes

· Great Britain's Commonwealth of Nations, Dutch East Indies both supported U.S. oil embargoes

· Japan and Germany administered perspective empires for economic gain and resource exploitation

· Slave labor

· opposition to state and policies was slim in Japan

The Bipolar World---Chapter 38

Interaction between humans and the environment: SEAMSTER, MARJANI

Demography & Disease

· The cold war occurred after the end of World War II And became a dispute between capitalists and socialists in Europe

· Europeans were involved in the cold war-British, French, Americans, Germans

· Capitalists make up the people who side with the U.S., pro-capitalism, and socialists/Soviets make up the people who side with USSR- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, pro-socialism

· The Americans end up fighting with North Korea in the Korean war

Migrations

· The French, British, Soviet Union, and Americans go into the capital of Germany, Berlin, and divided it into four zones as travel corridors for access to western Germany

· 3.5 million East Germans left their land as refugees because embarrassed by their communist leaders, 1949-1961

· About several thousand East Germans escaped to west Germany with dangerous attempts during the cold war and several hundred others tried were killed

· The cold war shifted from Europe to east Asia in Korea and also in Cuba

· During the Korean war about three hundred thousand Chinese soldiers came into North Korea to help the Koreans push U.S. forces into South Korea

Patterns of Settlement

· All who migrated had attempts to better themselves and give themselves advantages

· refugees migrated for better lives away from problems in their homeland because of the war

· Americans, French, British and the Soviet Union created advances for themselves in the war

Technology

· Nuclear weapons were used new military technologies used in the cold war

· airplanes/ warplanes

· missiles

· Cuban missile crisis of 1962

Development and interaction of cultures: SEEPERSAD-MOTEN, CHYNA

Science and Technology

· Soviets blockaded all road, rail, and water links between Berlin and western Germany.

· American and British aircrews flew around-the-clock missions to supply Berlin with the necessities of life.

· Late 1950’s – a workable intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) had been tested by Soviet experts to show their superiority to the world

· 4 October 1957 – a new Soviet launching of the first satellite, Sputnik; a “space race” had been initiated as an extraterrestrial form of the cold war.

· 1958 – United States launches own satellite Explorer I sending astronaut John Glenn into orbit in 1962.

· April 1961 – Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin was the first man to orbit the earth.

· 20 July 1969 – President John F. Kennedy dedicates the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to taking a “great leap for mankind” by landing a man on the moon.

The Arts and Architecture

· July 1959 – the kitchen debate occurs between U.S. Vice President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev; both attend the American National Exhibit (a rare display of U.S. goods on Russian soil) when Khrushchev insults American kitchen appliances and argues that “the working class could never afford such useless gadgets”.

· 1961 – the construction of the Berlin Wall, a fortified structure dividing the city of Berlin; complete with watch towers, search lights, antipersonnel mines, and border guards.

· 1964 – cultural criticism of cold war as seen in film Dr. Strangelove.

· 1964 – Rock-and-Roll music expressed student discontent about the cold war.

State-building, expansion and conflict: SHAHAR, DAVID

Political structures and forms of governance

· Kitchen debates

o This was a series of issues that took place at the height of the cold war

o These issues were discussed by Nixon and Khrushchev

§ Showed how deep the rift between the United States and the Soviet Socialist Republics had grown since 1945

o This was a instance of great power rivalry

o clash between capitalism and communism that opened new global policies, economic systems and political institutions around the world

o The geopolitical and ideological battles continued for almost 50 years

§ These issues were spread all over the world

· Watergate

o This event took place during the presidency of Richard Nixon (1968-1974)

o Exposed for unauthorized Cambodia bombing

o Nixon placed wiretaps on the phone lines of reporters and his members in staff

o Watergate was headquarters of Democrat party

§ Criminal activity

o The burglars were caught and the Nixon and his staff tried to cover up his tracks

§ Journalists investigated and linked the burglars back to Nixon and his resignation in August 1974.

· The Prague Spring

o This idea was launched by the Communist Party leader

§ Alexander Dubcek

o It was a movement that promised his fellow citizens “socialism with a human face”

o This movement was brought to an end by the Soviet army

§ They were aided by East German, Bulgarian and Polish units

· Tensions between the United States with Cuba and Korea

o USSR and USA divided Korea into two separate nations

§ Pyongyang was the capital of the People’s Democratic Republic of Korea

o The Pyongyang regime wanted to unify Korea

o They crossed the 38 parallel in a surprised attack and captured Seoul.

o The US government convinced the UN to adopt a resolution

o This resolution requested that all member states provide the Republic of South Korea with all necessary aid to repel the aggressors.

§ Within 2 weeks the North Korean troops were pushed back to the 38 parallel

o Soon after Chinese and North Korean forces pushed the US forces back into the south.

o Battles started to form

§ Both sides agreed to cease fire in July 1953

o The Cuban missile crisis of 1962 brought the superpowers to the brink of nuclear exchange

o Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar

§ Fulgencio maintained good terms with US

o In April 1961, 1,500 anti- Castro Cubans trained, armed and transported by the CIA landed on Cuba at a place called the Bay of Pigs.

§ The Bay of Pigs fiasco diminished US prestige and as a result of the US purpose in helping the citizens, Castro’s position in Cuba strengthened

o The Cubans intended to nuke the US with the protection of the Soviets

§ Negotiations started to form between the US and the USSR

o Khrushchev agreed to Kennedy’s demand that he would withdraw the missiles on the condition that the US not invade Cuba

· People’s Republic of China

o The Chinese introduced the five year plan in 1955

o It was designed to speed up economic development and it emphasized improvements in infrastructure

o Marketing was taken over by the government

§ Opened doors for health care and primary education

o Social reform became a big part of society

§ Equal rights for women, marriage laws that eliminate child or force marriage…

Empires

· Division of Germany after Hitler

o Once Hitler’s 3^rd Reich collapsed Germany was controlled by other countries

§ The United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, and France occupied Germany and its capital

o Tensions rose between the Soviets and the western counterparts

o The soviets retaliated by blocking all roads, rail and water links

· Vietnam War

o US extended aid to noncommunist Vietnamese in the south after the French were defeated

o the US phase of the Vietnam War ended with the Paris Peace Accords

§ This was a complex set of agreements signed by Britain, France, The Soviet Union, The United States, North Vietnam, the National Liberation Front, and South Vietnam

Nations and Nationalism

· Berlin Wall

o In August 1961, the communists reinforced their fortification along the border between East and West Germany

§ They constructed a fortified wall dividing the city of Berlin

§ Consisted of many defensive systems such as watch towers

o The wall accomplished its purpose of stemming the flow of refuges

· Civil Rights Movement

o Messages for Black’s rights were spread in many ways

§ Bob Marley’s Music

§ Martin Luther King

o The Civil Rights movement occurred in the United States

§ Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

o He helped Rosa Parks in her refusal by having all the African- Americans in Georgia boycott the public bus system

§ His methods proved the effectiveness of Gandhi’s methods

· De-Stalinization

o Stalin’s method of rule was openly attacked by several communist leaders

o Khrushchev embarked on a policy of de- Stalinization

§ This was the end of the rule of terror and the partial liberalization of Soviet society

§ It lasted from 1956- 1964

o Let to the attacks being brought into books as well

Revolts and Revolutions

· Revolutions in Eastern Europe

o Communism came to an end first in Poland where pressure was put on the crumbling rule of the Communist Party by Solidarity

§ Solidarity were a combined trade union and nationalist movement

o Lech Walesa was voted as the leader of the movement and became the president of Poland

o Communism was disintegrated in other locations throughout eastern Europe

o Communist were swept out of office and restored to democracy by 1990 from the Czechoslovakia “velvet revolution”

· The Cold War

o This was the division of the European continent into competing political, military and economic blocs

§ A bloc was a dependent country on the United States and the other subservient to the USSR

§ They were divided based on what Winston Churchill called an “iron curtain”

o Both blocs adopted the political institutions, economic systems and foreign policies of the two superpowers

o European nations that were tied to the US embraced parliamentary political systems and capitalist economic structures and adjusted their foreign policies to the US vision of the postwar world.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: SILVA, AURORA

· Central feature of the Cold War was arms race and proliferation of nuclear weapons

o The struggle between U.S. and Soviet Union led to the creation of two military blocks.

§ NATO (1949)- to serve as military counterweight to Soviet forces in Europe

§ Warsaw Pact- response to the rearming of West Germany

· The arms race. The logic of the cold war drove both superpowers to stockpile nuclear weapons in order to match one another's destructive capabilities.

· The two powers were evenly matched in the 1960s, but by the 1980s the effort had severely strained the Soviet economy.

· U.S. government extended military protection and economic aid to the noncommunist governments of Asia

o Believed that North Korean communists was part of larger conspiracy to conquer world

· Fidel Castro Ruz seized foreign properties and businesses and also accepted assistance from Soviet Union

o U.S. government cut off Cuban sugar imports and cut off diplomatic relations and began planning invasion of island.

· In the United States women did not have to work because their husbands earned enough to support the family in a suburban environment and mothers important job was to keep her family happy

o Soviet Union women were forced to work

· Five Year Plan in China in 1955

o Emphasized improvements in infrastructure and expansion of heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods

· In China, confiscated landholdings of rich peasants and landlords and then the government redistributed land so that virtually every peasant had small plot of land

· As an economic system, Soviet communism provided a shabby equality for all, with few consumer goods and limited opportunities.

· The postwar decades saw unprecedented prosperity in the United States, Europe, and Japan.

o Overall the standard of living in the capitalist societies improved dramatically, although there were greater extremes of wealth and poverty.

Development and transformation of social structures: SILVERMAN, GREER

Gender Roles and Relations:

· Kitchen debate - between President Nixon and Nikita Krucshev about women’s roles in society

· Women’s roles different in the US and Soviet Union because of technology - easier in US

· US government promotes a woman’s role as a housewife and patriotic mother

· US belief that women should stay home because men would provide for them and the family - continues patriarchy and male domination of society

· A woman’s most important role was considered to be making her family happy

· Domestic containment - policy in which women were relegated to the home sphere to avoid being suspected of supporting communism and other radical causes

· Many women worked and resented the shame placed upon them by society - fueled feminist movement

· Even tv shows promoted the idea of the ideal housewife - media role in gender identity

· US feminist movement inspires by women’s struggles in the Soviet Union and colonial Asia and Africa

· Feminist books were written to protest the lower status of women in the US and Europe - The Second Sex (Simone de Beauvoir 1949) and The Feminine Mystique (Betty Friedan 1963)

· In Vietnam protests for women’s rights - inspired by Marxism and anti-colonialism

· Communism in China = women’s equality, elimination of foot-binding and forced and child marriages - women also granted rights to divorce and get abortions

Family and Kinship:

· In US importance of family emphasized to combat communism -family basic unit of patriotism

· many Chinese family traditions eliminated through Communism

Racial and Ethnic Constructions:

· Black nationalism emerges in the US, Caribbean, and free colonies in Africa

· Bob Marley - musical artist demonstrated the call for nationalism and the fight against racism and discrimination

· Nationalist Marcus Garvey - called for repatriation in Africa

· Nationalist Kwame Nkrumah - was inspired by Garvey and led Ghana to independence

· Dr. Martin Luther King - most popular moderate nationalist, inspired by Gandhi, passive resistance

· Civil Rights Movement - sparked by soviet criticism and publication of US racism and segregation - was African American struggle for true equality and rights

· heavy segregation in Southern US - loss of voting rights, discrimination and extralegal violence

· Brown vs. Board of education 1954 - formally ends segregation in schools - first major victory of Civil Rights Movement

· Rosa Parks - civil rights activist sparked bus boycotts (an important movement)

Social and Economic Classes:

· Many lost their jobs because they were accused of supporting communism

· Middle-class suburban life was idealized

· Major contrast in economics of Eastern Europe and Western Europe and US post WWII

· US market flooded with appliances - technologies shape class systems and the standard of living

· Marshall Plan increases Western European economic standards of living

· in China redistribution of land and wealth = elimination of economically driven inequality between classes

· economic inequality eliminated entirely on village level - reduced at others

· landholdings of rich peasants and landlords confiscated and given to the people - loss of power-base and social distinctions

· all classes equally educated and given equal access to health care

· objection to social change in Afghanistan = armed resistance

The End of Empire—Chapter 39

Interaction between humans and the environment: SIMON, ANIJKE

Demography and Disease

· Palestine Divided

o Palestine Arabs living in Palestine, Jews migrate into Palestine.

o Both want Palestine to be their homeland because it was considered the original Jewish homeland but the Arabs are already living there.

· Colonized Africa

o France owned Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Benin, Togo, Cote, D’ivoire, Guinea, Senegal, and Burkina-Faso Fasso

o Great Britain owned Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leon, Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, South Africa, and Yemen and Iraq (Middle East)

o Italy owned Ethiopia, Libya, and Somalia

o Belgium owned Zaire

o Portugal owned Guinea Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique

Migrations

· Muslim and Hindu Refugee Migrations

o The Partition of India into Hindu and Muslim states led to the migration of hundreds of thousands of Muslim and Hindu refugees to Muslim Pakistan or Hindu India

o By 1948, 10 million refugees had left India

o Between ½ and 1 million people died in the attempt to migrate

· Jewish Migration

o Migration to Palestine to establish a secure homeland where they could avoid prosecution

o Migrating from Europe in Zionist Movement

o Zionist dream of returning to Palestine, which was the original site of the Jewish homeland

· Apartheid

o Under the National Party (1948) the government instituted a harsh new set of laws designed to control the restive black population; these laws constituted the system known as apartheid, or “seperateness.”

o 87 percent of South Africa was designated for the Whites

o Non-whites had to move to specified subordinate living areas meant only for them

· Palestinian- Arab Flee

o During and after the fighting of WWII, hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs fled from the war and Jewish political control

o These refugees served as a symbol of the Arabs defeat in Palestine and as a spur to the Arab nation’s determination to rid their region of Israel

Patterns of Settlement

· Arab National States and the Problems of Palestine

o Palestine Arabs rejected Jewish settlement in Palestine because it was a link to the imperial control of Great Britain, among other reasons

o Jewish settlement threatened Arab interests when they purchased land and established communal farms

o Arab resentment culminated in anti-Jewish riots and demonstrations

· United Nations Partition Plan of 1949—Partition of Palestine

o Jerusalem and the Jordan River Valley were divided between the new Israeli state and the Kingdom of Jordan while Israel controlled the coastal areas of Palestine and the Negev Desert to the Red Sea

· African Colonies

o The French were settled in Algeria, which they had to put a lot of effort into maintaining their presence in the 1950s and 1960s, so much so that all their other African Territories were given independence.

o 2 Million French settled in Algeria by the mid 1940s

o The year 1960, 13 French colonies in Africa won their independence and this year was called “The Year of Africa”

o The Algerian war of Liberation, 1954, killed thousands of French settlers and soldiers.

· In 1962 the Algerians gained independence.

o f) Ghana was settled by the British until winning independence in 1957

o g) Kenya was also a British colony and they began rebelling against the British in 1947 for their terrible slave treatment.

o h) In 1956 the British defeated the Kenya rebels, but Kenya’s independence was eventually negotiated in 1963.

· Apartheid

o Settled by Europeans (Afrikaners) and the indigenous Africans

· Mexico/Argentina

o Mexico was independent, but their economy depended on foreign markets and capital

o Argentina was a leader in the Latin American struggle against the United States and the European economic and political intervention

· Guatemala

o Guatemala had a democratically elected President and its economy and land was invested in by the United States, especially the export of bananas

Technology

· Egypt

o Constructed a massive dam of the Nile River at Aswan

o Egypt underwent a political revolution under Gamal Abdel Nasser and campaign of state reform through militarism suppressing the ideological and religious opposition of communists and Muslim brotherhood

· British Military

o The British military offense against the Kenya rebels utilized British advances in artillery, bombers, and jet fighters.

· “Great Leap”

o The “Great Leap” was a way to overtake the industrial production of more developed nations this included working to collectivize all land and to manage all business and industrial enterprises collectively.

· Private ownership was abolished

o Farming and Industry became largely rural and communal—this project failed and had disastrous impact on agricultural production

· Indian Democracy

· South Africa also had a democracy

o India stood out as politically stable and a democratic government after gaining independence in 1947

o Despite conflict, wars, poverty and overpopulation India was committed to reelections and a critical press (article in newspaper representing both sides)

o Under Indira Gandhi, India went through the “Green Revolution” that increased agricultural yields

· Jihad

o Muslim extremists used the concept Jihad to rationalize and legitimize terrorism and revolution.

o Jihad is the right and duty to defend Islam and the Islamic community from unjust attack

· The extremists claimed a mandate from God

Development and interaction of cultures: SIMON, ARI

· Mohandas K. Gandhi was a key force behind keeping Hindu-Muslim violence and avowal of tolerance steady in India

· After World War II, Winston Churchill and his conservative government were voted out of office and replace by a Labour government more inclined to dismantle the British empire in India

· The issue of Muslim separatism grew in importance as the probability of Indian independence became more pronounced, and Muslims increasingly feared their minority status in a free India dominated by Hindus

· Gandhi encouraged all Indians to act and feel as one nation, undivided by what came to be known as communalism-emphasizing religious over national identity

· There was a large power-struggle between Hindus and Muslims, this led to many demonstrations such as the Great Calcutta Killing

· On August 15, 1947, Pakistan was declared its own independent country. This created the Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India.

· The prime minister of India Nehru believed in the nonalignment policy under which countries like India sought to avoid taking sides in the cold war

· With U.S. support, South Vietnam’s leaders avoided elections and sought to build a government that would prevent the spread of communism in South Vietnam and elsewhere in Asia

· Before World War II, Arab states agitated for concessions under the mandate system, which limited Arab nationalist aspirations after the Great War.

· With the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the British government committed itself to the support of a homeland for Jews in Palestine, a commitment engendered in part by the vibrant Zionist movement growing in Europe since the 1890s.

· Zionists were dedicated to combating the violent anti-Semitism prevailing in central and Eastern Europe by establishing a national Jewish state.

· The Palestinian Muslims felt threatened by the European Jews coming into Palestine and this created a large fight which resulted in the establishment of Israel

· Forsaking constitutional government and democratic principles, Egypt’s government began a political revolution and campaign of state reform through militarism, suppressing the ideological and religious opposition organized by communists and the Muslim Brotherhood in order to develop Egypt economically and militarily and make it the fountainhead of pan-Arab nationalism.

· With the delays of decolonization in the 1950s as superpowers influenced Africa, there became internal divisions in African societies, which undermined attempts to forge national or pan-African identities

· Tribal, ethnic, religious, and linguistic divides within and between state boundaries, all of which colonial rulers had exploited, posed a challenge to African leaders, particularly once independence came and the imperial enemy departed

· Mao Zedong reunified China for the first time since the collapse of the Qing dynasty, transforming European communist ideology into a distinctly Chinese communism

· The solution to the problems faced by Muslim societies lay, according to the Islamists, in the revival of Islamic identity, values and power through peaceful means as well as violent means such as jihad.

· Nations in Central and South America along with Mexico grappled with the conservative legacies of Spanish and Portuguese colonialism, particularly the political and economic power of the landowning elite of European descent

· Latin America had to deal with neocolonialism, because the U.S. intervened in the economy and militarily if its interests were threatened

· In South Africa, there was apartheid, which was a harsh set of laws that were designed to control the restive population. This lasted from prior to 1948 until 1994.

State-building, expansion and conflict: SIMON, ASHER

· Mohandas Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and the Indian Congress Party as well as Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League were nationalist groups that fought for British reform to promote Indian self-rule but faced challenges from the call for separate Hindu and Muslim states and the pressure from England to support the war effort during World War II.

· Winston Churchill’s conservative British government was against Indian self-rule and despised Mohandas Gandhi, the icon of Indian independence.

· The Labour government that replaced Churchill after the war was more inclined to dismantle the British Empire, including India to fix the economic problems that were a result of WWII.

· India, a Hindu state, and Pakistan, a Muslim state, were given independence but violence soon broke out between the two nations.

· During the Cold War, Jawaharlal Nehru of India chose a policy of nonalignment so as to receive support from both the U.S. and Soviet Union.

· Leaders of new African and Asian countries met at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in 1955 and chose a policy of neutrality in the cold War and stressed the struggle against racism and colonialism.

· The Vietnamese nationalist communist leader Ho Chi Minh ousted the Japanese from Vietnam after they had conquered the territory from the French. The French attempted to conquer Vietnam again and succeeded until Ho Chi Minh and General Vo Nguyen Giap mounted a guerrilla campaign with support from the Chinese communist government, which forced the French to sue for peace in Geneva.

· The Geneva peace conference determined that Vietnam be divided so that the communists ruled the north and the noncommunists ruled the south.

· The government of the Republic of South Vietnam was unpopular so nationalists formed the National Liberation Front, made up of South Vietnamese but supported by the North Vietnamese communists. The U.S. became involved to support the South Vietnamese so the Vietnam War began.

· The Balfour Declaration of 1917 declared that the British government would support a homeland for Jews in Palestine. The Allies supported it at the Paris Peace conference in 1919. This meant that an increased amount of Jews migrated to British Palestine.

· In 1945, the Jews in Palestine resisted violently to British rule to win self-rule and open immigration. The British gave up in 1947 and attempted to give the territory to the U.N., who in turn tried to build two separate states: one Jewish and one Muslim. A civil war broke out, as Arabs felt this unacceptable.

· After an Arab-Israeli conflict, the Jews were victorious and the land was divided into the state of Israel, the Kingdom of Jordan.

· Gamal Abdel Nasser and Egyptian military leaders ended the monarchy of King Farouk in Egypt and named Nasser prime minister. He adopted a policy of neutrality because he considered Cold War politics to be imperialism.

· Nasser and Egypt supported pan-Arab politics by supporting Algeria’s war with France, dedicating themselves to ridding the world of Israel, and abolishing British military rights to the Suez Canal.

· British, French, and Israeli forces attempted to wrest control of the Suez Canal from Egypt and were successful, but the U.S. and Soviet Union forced them to withdraw.

· The U.S. and U.S.S.R. supported the existence of Israel but maintained relations in Southwest Asia because of oil.

· Algerians revolted against their imperial rulers from France. The FLN (National Liberation Front) fought a war that ended in Algerian independence.

· After WWII, European powers planned to allow Africa to be independent gradually. Many nationalist movements appeared after Ghana (nonviolently) became independent in Zambia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe.

· Kikuyu fighters in Kenya fought the British but were defeated. However, Kenya soon negotiated its independence.

· Mao Zedong reunified China and created a Communist government.

· Deng Xiaoping regained power after Mao’s death and opened China to foreign influence. Hong Kong was returned to China, but it was a democratic city so it was hard to rule with a communist government.

· Stable Indian democracy was exception to Asian pattern of authoritarian rule

· Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, was prime minister of India, was voted out and reelected. She crushed uprising of Sikhs who wanted more autonomy in the Punjab region but was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in response.

· Rajiv Gandhi, Indira Gandhi’s son, was elected after his mother’s death and attempted to reconcile with the Sikhs. He was assassinated during reelection.

· Despite Arab nationalism and opposition to the existence of Israel, pan-Arab unity did not appear.

· Israel became allied with the United States, while many Arab Islamic states allied with U.S.S.R. However, the president of Egypt, Anwar Sadat, ended alliance with the Soviet Union in 1976

· Israel defeated Egypt and Syria in wars in 1967 and in 1973, leading to a series of peace negotiations. Anwar Sadat of Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1980 but was assassinated a year later. The leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization, Yasser Arafat, and the prime minister of Israel, Yitzhak Rabin, signed peace treaties between 1993 and ’95.

· Islamism in Southwest Asia was a revival of Muslim traditions that reasserted Islamic values in politics, caused resentment of the West, and embraced idea of jihad.

· The American CIA helped anticommunist Shah Mohammed Pahlavi in the Iranian Revolution, but Ayatollah Khomeini, who despised secular rule, overthrew him. He held U.S. captives in response to support for the shah.

· Iraqi president Saddam Hussein launched attack on Iran causing Iran-Iraq war, then on Kuwait, causing Gulf War.

· President Lázaro Cárdenas ruled Mexico between 1934 and 1940. After the 1930s, conservative governments dominated by Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) ruled Mexico.

· Argentina returned to military rule after WWII and fought U.S. interference. The immensely popular Juan Perón was elected president in 1946 but was ousted in the mid-1950s and was followed by 30 years of military rule.

· Guatemala was thrust into civil war after President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman seized land held by United Fruit Co. The CIA engineered the ousting of Arbenz and replaced him with military dictator Colonel Castillo Armas, who was assassinated and civil war began.

· The dictators in Nicaragua were an anticommunist U.S. ally that was overthrown by Marxist Sandinistas. Carter did not interfere and restored the Panama Canal to Panama, but Reagan supported rebel Contras.

· The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created in 1963 to promote pan-African unity and prevent conflicts. Colonial borders were enforced. Many African states developed one-party dictatorial rule.

· South Africa became independent but apartheid developed. Nelson Mandela protested, became president eventually, ending apartheid.

· The Marxist prime minister of the Democratic Republic of Congo or Zaire, who was killed in a CIA-backed coup leading to rule by Dictator Mobutu then Lawrence Kabila who changed country’s name back to the Congo but was killed and replaced by his son Joseph,

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: SIMON, BLAKE

· Late Twentieth Century: Wealthy elites in Latin America control majority of land. Resulted in 2 main classes, the rich (usually supported by the U.S.) and the poor.

· During World War II, Nations in Latin America began to undergo rapid industrialization in order to supply for the needs of the Nations fighting the war.

· Economic growth as a result of exports of both manufactured goods and natural resources to foreign markets.

· Raul Prebisch of the United Nations Commission for Latin America, proposed the dependency theory, that Latin America needed to divert the focus of their economic system away from exports, and towards domestic trade.

· During the 1970s and 1980s the global recession greatly impacted Latin America. Latin American nations began to suffer under large debts to foreign countries. A decline in the profit made from industrial exports lowered the possibility for Latin America to pay off debt interest.

· Modern Africa accounts for only 1% of the world’s industrial output, while housing 10% of the world’s population.

· Mid 1980s, Africa contains only seven nations with per capita incomes equal to or greater than $1000. Highest number of low income states.

· Africa - Population increase between 2.5 and 3% annually.

· Africa is home to numerous natural resources but lacks the technology to take advantage of them.

· Drought and famine cause the agricultural production of Africa to have difficulty keeping up with the rapidly expanding population.

· Strongly supported by the leaders of African nations was the establishment of the New International Economic Order, which sought the allocation of global wealth, by guaranteeing set prices for market commodities.

Development and transformation of social structures: SUH, ANGELA

Gender roles and relations

· Indira Gandhi, was prime minister of India, 1966-1977.

o Government engaged in a repressive birth control policy, including involuntary sterilization. Policy voted out in 1977

· In Argentina, Juan Peróns wife Eva Perón, was national heroine for her service to the poor

Racial and ethnic constructions

· Apartheid system ended Ended because of Black agitation and international sanctions in 1989.

· The Bandung conference was “the first international conference of coloured people in the history of mankind.”

Social and economic classes

· Nasser nationalized canals so that it would build Egypt's economy.

· An Apartheid was a harsh legal system imposed in 1948 in South Africa, designed to keep races separate.

o Ended because of Black agitation and international sanctions in 1989.

· Economic problems continued to limit the possibility of widespread change or the achievement of economic and social equity in Latin America.

o Latin American nations realized the need to reorient their economies away from exports and toward internal development, but attempts to do fell short.

· Raul Prebisch theory of “economic dependency”

o developing nations needed to protect domestic industries

o developed nations controlled world economy at expense of undeveloped ones

· Economic and political instability often hampered post-independent Africa

· Deng’s revolution welcomed economic and market reforms to push the economic development of China.

· Ghandi labored a new draft of a new constitution for the Indian national congress, one of his major concerns for his new nation was that that discrimination based on the caste system be abolished.

· The “green revolution” in India, aided wealthier farmers, but the masses of peasant farmers fell deeper into poverty.

A World Without Borders---Chapter 40

Interaction between humans and the environment: SUH, SANG MI

· Communication by radio, telephone, television, fax machine, and networked computers has spawned a global village that has swept away the social, economic, and political isolation of the past.

· After World War II the widespread and successful use of vaccines, antibiotics, and insecticides, along with improvements in water supplies and increased agricultural yields, caused a dramatic decline in worldwide death rates.

· As the result of advances in agriculture, industry, science, medicine, and social organization, the world experienced a fivefold population increase over a period of three hundred years: from 500 million people in 1650 to 2.5 billion in 1950.

· As people are born, pollution levels increase, more habitats and animal and plant species disappear, and more natural resources are consumed. In recent decades, two environmental issues have taken center stage: biodiversity and global warming.

· The most serious epidemic threat comes from AIDS. This fatal disorder of the immune system is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which slowly attacks and destroys the immune system, leaving the infected individual vulnerable to infections that eventually cause death.

· The largest human migrations today are rural-urban flows. During the last half of the twentieth century, these internal migrations led to rapid urbanization in much of the world.

· Today the most highly urbanized societies are those of western and northern Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and temperate South America and North America.

· Foreigners currently make up more than half the working population in the oil-producing countries of southwest Asia.

· In many countries, governments have come under pressure to restrict immigration or even expel foreign residents.

· Industrial society gave birth to mass tourism by providing both safer and faster transport and by institutionalizing two modern features of social life – leisure and travel.

· Tourism made the economy better.

· The Internet reinforces the contemporary fact that English has become the universal tongue of the twenty-first century.

· Some societies have managed to adapt European and US technology to meet their own needs while opposing cultural interference. Television, for example, had been used to promote state building around the world, since most television industries are state controlled.

· In part of population decline is the result of AIDS crisis, which is taking a heavy demographic toll in societies where fertility rates are high.

· The most serious threat to biodiversity emerged from the destruction of natural habitats in the wake of urbanization, extension of agricultural activity, and exploitation of mineral and timber resources.

· The AIDS epidemic is a serious public health threat throughout the world, but the disease has struck the developing world hardest, especially sub-Saharan Africa.

Development and interaction of cultures: TREJO, LESLIE

No completed work

State-building, expansion and conflict: TUNQUE, ALDRIN

Political Structures and Forms of Governance:

· People’s Republic formed 1949 in China. They placed the economy under state control.

· Political institutions being established such as Council of Ministers and European Parliament which facilitated the long range goal of European political integration.

· Most governments in the world withheld recognition of the Taliban as Afghanistan’s legitimate government.

· Democratic state being built in Iraq by a multinational coalition force.

· The United Nations. A premier international governmental organization that attempts to find solutions to global problems and to deal with virtually any matter of concern to humanity. In this organization, vast majority of world’s countries have a voice and a vote in shaping the international community of nations.

Nations and Nationalism:

· Japanese economy’s revival after 1945 and almost competes with United States in being world’s largest economy.

· The “Little Tigers”. Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. They became majorly industrialized and became major economic powers.

· Barbie and Ken in United States are seen as cultural influences and Iran answers by creating Sara and Dara. They don’t want the influence of the United States in their country.

Revolts and Revolutions:

· Proletarian Cultural Revolution that lasted for 11 years in China. This led to reforms which opened up Chinese markets to outside world, encouraged foreign investment, and imported foreign technology

· Acts of terror following World War II, as in individuals and groups the world over attempted to destabilize or overthrow political systems within or outside borders of their countries.

Regional, trans-regional and global structures and organizations:

· International Monetary Fund. Founded at the Bretton-Woods Conference in New Hampshire in 1944. They began the promotion of market economies, free trade, and high growth rates.

· General Agreement on Tariffs (GATT). This was signed by twenty-three noncommunist nations and their intent was to remove or loosen barriers to free trade.

· World Trade Organization (WTO). Created by the GATT, and took over for the GATT. They aimed to settle international trade disputes, and they had the power to enforce this.

· Global corporations began to arise who could conduct businesses all across the world and having to abide by their laws.

· Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). They sought to raise the price of oil through cooperation

· Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Objectives were to accelerate economic development and promote political stability in Southeast Asia.

· North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Developed because United States saw they needed to become a part of regional trading group and joined with Mexico and Canada.

· Red Cross is an international humanitarian agency. Originally dedicated to help the sufferings of wounded soldiers, prisoners or warm and civilians during time of war. Rules for the treatment of wounded and protection of medical personal and hospitals.

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: WASHINGTON, AMANDA

· Improvement in water supplies increased agricultural yields, caused dramatic decline in worldwide death rates

· Global economy adopted free trade- freedom from state imposed limits on trade across borders, no single economic power could fully control global trade and commerce

· General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed by twenty-three noncommunist nations in 1947, intended to remove barriers to free trade

· World Trade Organization (WTO) took over after the GATT in 1995, developed into a forum for settling international trade disputes, with the power to enforce decisions

· International companies replaced by global corporations that seek jobs from foreign locations where wages are low and environmental laws are weak

· Global corporations lead to declining corporate taxes, meaning less money for social services and welfare programs

· U.S. gives Japan financial aid ($2 billion) after Japanese defeat in 1945

· U.S. policies jump-start Japan’s economic revival-- no restriction on Japanese products in U.S. market

· United States militarily protected Japan

· 1952 military defense treaty-- Japan could not spend more than 1 percent of its gross national product on defense

· Japan emphasized export-oriented growth supported by low wages-- this form of labor was compliant and endured working conditions and wages that were not accepted in Europe and U.S.

· In China Mao Zedong placed economy under state control, encouraged foreign investment, and imported foreign technology

· Socialist market economy in China by 1992

· Financial crisis in 1997-- international investment economies withdrew from developing Asian economies-- affected Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and South Korea

· Trading blocs- economic alliances among nations made to achieve advantages in the global economy

· European Union established through Maestricht Treaty of 1993-- eleven nations adopt common currency

· Council of Ministries and European Parliament supported long-range goals of European political integration

· Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)- a producer cartel established in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and later joined by Qatar, Libya, Indonesia, Abu Dhabi, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Gabon

· Arab-Israeli War of 1973-- Arab and Muslim members of OPEC wanted to raise the price of oil

· OPEC orders embargo on oil shipments in U.S. and quadruples price of oil from 1973-1975-- contributes to global recession and decrease in oil exports

· Iran-Iraq War and the Gulf War lead to decline in OPEC’s influence

· Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) established in 1967 to stimulate economic development in southeast Asia

· North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)- regional alliance between U.S. (largest national economy in the world), Canada and Mexico in 1993

Development and transformation of social structures: ZELAYA, NANCY

Gender roles and relations

· In the U.S., the Civil Rights Act of 1964 helped put an end to discrimination based on both race and sex.

· In the 1960s, the discrimination of women turned into a feminist movement that criticized gender inequality.

· Women didn’t achieve full equality with men, but were closer to being equal to men than before.

· Women had lower wages than men.

· In 1950, communist leaders passed the marriage laws, which gave equal rights for women and men in the areas of work, property, ownership, and inheritance.

· There were jobs that were designated as female, like teaching, service, and clerical jobs.

· Universally, boy babies preferred, rather than girl babies. In China, this was the reason for many cases of infanticide, and girl babies were the main target.

· In Arab and Muslim societies, women have become more literate than previous times.

· In India, the literacy for women reached 54% by 2001, but most women there still maintain the expected role of a woman, which is to stay at home.

· In south Asia, the main form of domestic abuse towards women was the dowry death, which was when a man would douse his wife with kerosene, and set her on fire.

· Women became political leaders like Indira Gandhi, Bandaranaike Bhuto, Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga (fist female president of Sri Lanka), and Daw Aung San Suu Kyi.

· The U.N. launched a Decade for Women program in 1975, which discusses the status of women around the globe.

· In the 1960s, the introduction of the control pill, and the legal protection of abortion in the 1970s provided women with a sense of sexual freedom.

· Women started going into the workforce alongside men: 40%-50% in industrial societies, 20% in developing societies and 10% in Islamic societies.

Family and kinship

· In most developing countries, there were patriarchal family structures.

· Due to the issue of overpopulation, most societies set standards for the family size that was suitable for their society.

Racial and ethnic constructions

· Throughout the globe, countries have gained diversity within their nations, and have kept their ethical values, while diffusing them with foreign values, making their society more accepting to different ideals. An ex. would be the U.S., while other societies, like Islamic societies, really haven’t.

· Some countries, though, like the U.S., have not been sensible to other people’s ethnic backgrounds, and have interfered with them, by trying to change them.

Social and Economic classes

· There are high (rich), middle (in between), and low (poor) social and economic classes.

· Poverty is a big concern within all the societies, since the division of rich and poor has caused an unequal distribution of the natural resources.

· Developed Nations (ex. U.S.) more wealthy than developing nations (ex. Angola).

History Test

Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations-Chapter 2

Interaction between humans and the environment: ALVARADO, PEDRO

Development and interaction of cultures: ANYADIKE, KIMBERLY

State-building, expansion and conflict: ARATOW, ALEC

Political structures and forms of governance

Empires

Nations and Nationalism

Revolts and revolutions

Regional, transregional, and global structures and organizations

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: BAEK, JOHN

Development and transformation of social structures: BLANCO, OLIMPIA

Early Societies in South Asia-Chapter 4

Interaction between humans and the environment: BOHON, ASHLEY

Development and interaction of cultures: BOUDREAUX, TYLER

Has not turned in work yet

State-building, expansion and conflict: BRODEY, LILY

Political Structures & Forms of Governance:

Empires:

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: CASTANEDA, YASMIN

Development and transformation of social structures: CHAIT, LILY

Origins of the Caste System:

Development of Patriarchal Society:

The Unification of China-Chapters 8 & 12

Interaction between humans and the environment: CHAMBERLAIN, HUNTLEY

Key Concepts:

Population

Technology

Paper

Disease

Migration

Development and interaction of cultures: CHANG, SALLY

State-building, expansion and conflict: CHIN, AARON

Political structures and forms of governance

Empires

Nations and nationalism

Revolts and revolutions

Regional, transregional, and global structures and organizations

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: CHO, DEBORAH

THE SILK ROADS

Development and transformation of social structures: CHOI, DANIEL

Gender roles and relations:

Family and kinship:

Racial and ethnic constructions:

Social and economic classes:

The Expansive Realm of Islam-Chapter 14

Interaction between humans and the environment: CHOI, JOSHUA

Development and interaction of cultures: CHUN, STELLA

Religion: Islam

State-building, expansion and conflict: CHUNG, ERIC

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: CHUNG, HAYOON

Agricultural and pastoral production:

Trade and Commerce

Labor Systems

Industrialization

Socialism and Capitalism

Development and transformation of social structures: COOK, MOHAMMED

No completed work

India and the Indian Ocean Basin –Chapter 16

Interaction between humans and the environment: DE SANTIAGO, AMBAR

Demography and Disease:

Migrations:

Patterns of Settlement:

Technology:

Development and interaction of cultures: DIDELOT-HERN, MARGUERIT

Technology and Science

Art and Architecture

Philosophies and Ideologies

Belief Systems

Religion

State-building, expansion and conflict: DORFMAN, EDWARD

Political structures and forms of governance

Empires

Nations and Nationalism

Revolts and Revolutions

Regional, Transregional, and Global Structures and Organizations

Creation, expansion, and interaction of economic systems: DREAR, DAVIS

Agricultural and Pastoral Production

Trade and Commerce

Labor Systems